John Schmerfeld

Mercury Exposure Affects the Reproductive Success of a Free-Living Terrestrial Songbird, the Carolina Wren (Thryothorus ludovicianus)

ABSTRACT. Despite mounting evidence of mercury accumulation in terrestrial ecosystems, few data exist on how environmental mercury exposure affects reproductive success in free-living songbirds. From 2007 through 2010, we monitored reproductive success of Carolina Wrens (Thryothorus ludovicianus) breeding along the forest floodplain of two mercury-contaminated rivers in Virginia. Using an information-theoretic approach, we found a 34% reduction in nesting success of Carolina Wrens on mercury-contaminated sites when compared with reference sites. Blood mercury concentration of the attending female was a strong predictor of nest success. Birds nesting on contaminated sites were 3× more likely to abandon their nests than birds on uncontaminated reference sites. We report a range of effects concentrations associated with various levels of reproductive impairment; for example, a 10% reduction in nest success corresponded with 0.7 µg g-1 mercury in the blood, 2.4 µg g-1 mercury in body feathers, 3.0 µg g-1 mercury in tail feathers, and 0.11 µg g-1 mercury in eggs. This is the first field study to document the effect of specific adult songbird blood mercury concentrations on breeding performance; our results show that free-living songbirds can suffer negative reproductive effects at relatively low mercury concentrations.

Mercury exposure in terrestrial birds far downstream of an historical point source

Mercury (Hg) is a persistent environmental contaminant found in many freshwater and marine ecosystems. Historical Hg contamination in rivers can impact the surrounding terrestrial ecosystem, but there is little known about how far downstream this contamination persists. In 2009, we sampled terrestrial forest songbirds at five floodplain sites up to 137 km downstream of an historical source of Hg along the South and South Fork Shenandoah Rivers (Virginia, USA). We found that blood total Hg concentrations remained elevated over the entire sampling area and there was little evidence of decline with distance. While it is well known that Hg is a pervasive and long-lasting aquatic contaminant, it has only been recently recognized that it also biomagnifies effectively in floodplain forest food webs. This study extends the area of concern for terrestrial habitats near contaminated rivers for more than 100 km downstream from a waterborne Hg point source.

Modeling mercury biomagnification (South River, Virginia, USA) to inform river management decision making

Mercury trophic transfer in the South River (VA, USA) was modeled to guide river remediation decision making. Sixteen different biota types were collected at six sites within 23 river miles. Mercury biomagnification was modeled using a general biomagnification model based on delta(15)N and distance from the historic mercury release. Methylmercury trophic transfer was clearer than that for total Hg and, therefore, was used to build the predictive model (r(2) (prediction) = 0.76). The methylmercury biomagnification factors were similar among sites, but model intercept did increase with distance down river. Minimum Akaikes Information Criterion Estimation (MAICE) justified the incorporation of distance in the model. A model with a very similar biomagnification factor to the South River (95% confidence intervals [CI] = 0.38-0.52) was produced for a second contaminated Virginia river, the North Fork Holston River (95% CI = 0.41-0.55). Percent of total Hg that was methylmercury increased monotonically with trophic position. Trophic models based on delta(15)N were adequate for predicting changes in mercury concentrations in edible fish under different remediation scenarios.

Acute and chronic toxicity of mercury to early life stages of the rainbow mussel, Villosa iris (Bivalvia: Unionidae)

Mercury (Hg) contamination is receiving increased attention globally because of human health and environmental concerns. Few laboratory studies have examined the toxicity of Hg on early life stages of freshwater mussels, despite evidence that glochidia and juvenile life stages are more sensitive to contaminants than adults. Three bioassays (72-h acute glochidia, 96-h acute juvenile, and 21-d chronic juvenile toxicity tests) were conducted by exposing Villosa iris to mercuric chloride salt (HgCl2). Glochidia were more sensitive to acute exposure than were juvenile mussels, as 24-, 48-, and 72-h median lethal concentration values (LC50) for glochidia were >107, 39, and 14 microg Hg/L, respectively. The 24-, 48-, 72-, and 96-h values for juveniles were 162, 135, 114, and 99 microg Hg/L, respectively. In the chronic test, juveniles exposed to Hg treatments > or = 8 microg/L grew significantly less than did control organisms. The substantial difference in juvenile test endpoints emphasizes the importance of assessing chronic exposure and sublethal effects. Overall, our study supports the use of glochidia as a surrogate life stage for juveniles in acute toxicity tests. However, as glochidia may be used only in short-term tests, it is imperative that an integrated approach be taken when assessing risk to freshwater mussels, as their unique life history is atypical of standard test organisms. Therefore, we strongly advocate the use of both glochidia and juvenile life stages for risk assessment.

Interactive effects of climate change with nutrients, mercury, and freshwater acidification on key taxa in the North Atlantic Landscape Conservation Cooperative region

The North Atlantic Landscape Conservation Cooperative LCC (NA LCC) is a public-private partnership that provides information to support conservation decisions that may be affected by global climate change (GCC) and other threats. The NA LCC region extends from southeast Virginia to the Canadian Maritime Provinces. Within this region, the US National Climate Assessment documented increases in air temperature, total precipitation, frequency of heavy precipitation events, and rising sea level, and predicted more drastic changes. Here, we synthesize literature on the effects of GCC interacting with selected contaminant, nutrient, and environmental processes to adversely affect natural resources within this region. Using a case study approach, we focused on 3 stressors with sufficient NA LCC region-specific information for an informed discussion. We describe GCC interactions with a contaminant (Hg) and 2 complex environmental phenomena-freshwater acidification and eutrophication. We also prepared taxa case studies on GCC- and GCC-contaminant/nutrient/process effects on amphibians and freshwater mussels. Several avian species of high conservation concern have blood Hg concentrations that have been associated with reduced nesting success. Freshwater acidification has adversely affected terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems in the Adirondacks and other areas of the region that are slowly recovering due to decreased emissions of N and sulfur oxides. Eutrophication in many estuaries within the region is projected to increase from greater storm runoff and less denitrification in riparian wetlands. Estuarine hypoxia may be exacerbated by increased stratification. Elevated water temperature favors algal species that produce harmful algal blooms (HABs). In several of the regions estuaries, HABs have been associated with bird die-offs. In the NA LCC region, amphibian populations appear to be declining. Some species may be adversely affected by GCC through higher temperatures and more frequent droughts. GCC may affect freshwater mussel populations via altered stream temperatures and increased sediment loading during heavy storms. Freshwater mussels are sensitive to un-ionized ammonia that more toxic at higher temperatures. We recommend studying the interactive effects of GCC on generation and bioavailability of methylmercury and how GCC-driven shifts in bird species distributions will affect avian exposure to methylmercury. Research is needed on how decreases in acid deposition concurrent with GCC will alter the structure and function of sensitive watersheds and surface waters. Studies are needed to determine how GCC will affect HABs and avian disease, and how more severe and extensive hypoxia will affect fish and shellfish populations. Regarding amphibians, we suggest research on 1) thermal tolerance and moisture requirements of species of concern, 2) effects of multiple stressors (temperature, desiccation, contaminants, nutrients), and 3) approaches to mitigate impacts of increased temperature and seasonal drought. We recommend studies to assess which mussel species and populations are vulnerable and which are resilient to rising stream temperatures, hydrological shifts, and ionic pollutants, all of which are influenced by GCC.

Freshwater Mussel (Unionidae) Abundance and Diversity Upstream and Downstream of a Superfund Site on the North Fork Holston River, Saltville, Virginia

ABSTRACT The North Fork Holston River (NFHR) historically supported 33 unionid mussel species downstream of Saltville, VA. Because of industrial contamination over decades from a chlor-alkali plant, a U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Superfund Site (SITE) was created with Hg and MeHg designated as contaminants of concern. Mussel surveys were conducted at 18 NFHR locations to determine abundance, species richness, and recruitment upstream and downstream of the SITE. Seventeen unionid species were collected, and mean species richness of upstream sites (8.8 species, n = 6 sites) was greater than the mean of downstream locations (3.8 species, n = 12). The catch-per-unit-effort mean from upstream sites (10.4 mussels/h, n = 3 sites) was greater than the mean of downstream sites (3.5 mussels/h, n = 12). Mean density of upstream (1.8 mussels/m2, n = 6 sites) sites was higher than observed at downstream (1.0 mussels/m2, n = 8) locations. Results show that species richness in the entire lower NFHR is less than observed upstream, and measures of mussel abundance and recruitment also are severely depressed in the ∼35 km reach downstream of the SITE, where no juvenile and very few adult mussels were collected. The influences of a wide array of contaminants, including Hg, MeHg, Cl-, major ions, and trace elements, from the SITE on downstream recovery of unionid mussels are discussed.