John Sproule

Acute, intermediate intensity exercise, and speed and accuracy in working memory tasks: A meta-analytical comparison of effects

The purpose of this study was to compare, using meta-analytic techniques, the effect of acute, intermediate intensity exercise on the speed and accuracy of performance of working memory tasks. It was hypothesized that acute, intermediate intensity exercise would have a significant beneficial effect on response time and that effect sizes for response time and accuracy data would differ significantly. Random-effects meta-analysis showed a significant, beneficial effect size for response time, g=-1.41 (p<0.001) but a significant detrimental effect size, g=0.40 (p<0.01), for accuracy. There was a significant difference between effect sizes (Z(diff)=3.85, p<0.001). It was concluded that acute, intermediate intensity exercise has a strong beneficial effect on speed of response in working memory tasks but a low to moderate, detrimental one on accuracy. There was no support for a speed-accuracy trade-off. It was argued that exercise-induced increases in brain concentrations of catecholamines result in faster processing but increases in neural noise may negatively affect accuracy.

Career Development of Expert Coaches

Careers in coaching are a relatively new phenomenon in the UK and at present appear to be limited to the performance coach. This study, using an interview approach, examined the transition of expert coaches (n = 9) through various stages in their careers. The main aim of this study was to ascertain if expert coaches could explain the process of their development to perceived expert status. The interviewed coaches could offer no real insight into their designation as experts. They did raise some questions regarding the value of current coach education provision, especially as it related to their current role as coaches of elite athletes. Their methods of development were considered to be informal, with networking with other coaches of like mind believed to be essential to their progress. The ability to contextualise knowledge and information to suit both the individual and situation, as well as appropriate mentors at the initial stages of their coaching careers were also regarded as vital.

Developing pupils' performance in team invasion games.

Background: To develop pupils’ team invasion games (TIG) performance within physical education (PE), practitioners have traditionally adopted teacher-centred, skill-focused approaches. Teaching Games for Understanding and the Tactical approach are alternative approaches to TIG teaching that aim to develop overall game performance, including decision-making performance. Purpose: The main purpose of this study was to conduct an ecologically valid investigation into the effects a tactical teaching approach had on game knowledge, game playing performance and pupil perception of decision-making ability compared to authentic teaching in a Scottish secondary school. Participants and setting: Fifty-two pupils (24 female; 28 male; age = 12.5 ± 0.3 years) participated in this study. The pupils were made up of two secondary 1 (S1) classes from a Scottish urban state secondary school. Both classes were heterogeneous in terms of gender and ability and the pupils from each class had similar pre-secondary school PE experiences. Two teachers, Lisa and Anthony, took part in this study. Both Lisa (age = 23 years) and Anthony (age = 27 years) had taught in the school for one year. Intervention: The overall aim for both teachers was to develop the pupils’ performance in a game of 4v4 basketball over a five-week block. The teaching strategies Lisa used to reach this aim were based on the Tactical approach to teaching games. Using pupil-centred teaching strategies such as problem-solving, discussing and reflecting, Lisas aims were to develop the pupils’ tactical understanding and game performance in relation to creating space on and off-the-ball to keep possession and progress towards target, re-gaining possession and counter attack, and denying space in the key area. Anthony followed the PE departments guidelines for teaching basketball to improve the pupils’ performance in 4v4 basketball. This involved the application of direct teaching strategies to teach the chest pass, the bounce pass, dribbling, the set shot, the jump shot and the lay-up. Data collection: Data from focus group interviews was gathered in order to elicit pupils’ knowledge and experiences of learning to play TIG. The pupils were recorded on video before and after the intervention to determine any differences in game playing performance between groups. Finally, a questionnaire was administered in order to establish the pupils’ perception of their own decision-making abilities both on and off-the-ball. Data analysis: The focus group interview data were analysed by two experienced researchers who identified key experiences (or bodies of knowledge) about basketball that the pupils in each group discussed. In order to analyse the participants’ game performance in offence both on and off-the-ball, their tactical decisions were coded as ‘good’ or ‘poor’, and their on-the-ball skill execution was coded as either ‘successful’ or ‘unsuccessful’. The questionnaire data were analysed using a mixed design two-way repeated measures ANOVA to test for differences between the two groups in their perception of decision-making ability. Findings: During the focus group interviews, the group that took part in the traditional, more skill-focused, lessons discussed the technical components of basketball skills, and the pupils from the game-based lessons discussed the different principles of play that they applied during practices and games. The 4v4 game performance data demonstrated that the game-based group made significantly more good decisions on and off-the-ball compared to the skill-focused group. There were no significant differences between groups post intervention in terms of on-the-ball skill execution. The pupils in the game-based group believed that their decision-making abilities, both on and off the ball, had improved. In contrast, the class that took part in the skill-focused lessons believed that their decision-making abilities had deteriorated over the five-week period. Conclusion: The findings from this research provide valuable information in relation to the learning outcomes produced by different teaching approaches during an investigation high in ecological validity. In order to further our understanding teaching TIG, future research should examine the teaching and learning processes involved when adopting such approaches.

INCREMENTAL EXERCISE, PLASMA CONCENTRATIONS OF CATECHOLAMINES, REACTION TIME, AND MOTOR TIME DURING PERFORMANCE OF A NONCOMPATIBLE CHOICE RESPONSE TIME TASK '

The primary purpose was to examine the effect of incremental exercise on a noncompatible response time task. Participants (N = 9) undertook a 4-choice noncompatible response time task under 3 conditions, following rest and during exercise at 70% and 100% of their maximum power output. Reaction and movement times were the dependent variables. Maximum power output had been previously established on an incremental test to exhaustion. A repeated-measures multivariate analysis of variance yielded a significant effect of exercise intensity on the task, but observation of the separate univariate repeated-measures analyses of variance showed that only movement time was significantly affected. Post hoc Tukey tests indicated movement time during maximal intensity exercise was significantly faster than in the other two conditions. The secondary purpose of the study was to assess whether increases in plasma concentrations of adrenaline and nor-adrenaline during exercise and power output would act as predictor variables of reaction and movement times during exercise. Catecholamine concentrations were based on venous blood samples taken during the maximum power output test. None of the variables were significant predictors of reaction time. Only power output was a significant predictor of movement time (R2 = .24). There was little support for the notion that peripheral concentrations of catecholamines directly induce a central nervous system response.

Carbohydrate Ingestion during Team Games Exercise: Current Knowledge and Areas for Future Investigation

There is a growing body of research on the influence of ingesting carbohydrate-electrolyte solutions immediately prior to and during prolonged intermittent, high-intensity exercise (team games exercise) designed to replicate field-based team games. This review presents the current body of knowledge in this area, and identifies avenues of further research. Almost all early work supported the ingestion of carbohydrate-electrolyte solutions during prolonged intermittent exercise, but was subject to methodological limitations. A key concern was the use of exercise protocols characterized by prolonged periods at the same exercise intensity, the lack of maximal- or high-intensity work components and long periods of seated recovery, which failed to replicate the activity pattern or physiological demand of team games exercise. The advent of protocols specifically designed to replicate the demands of field-based team games enabled a more externally valid assessment of the influence of carbohydrate ingestion during this form of exercise. Once again, the research overwhelmingly supports carbohydrate ingestion immediately prior to and during team games exercise for improving time to exhaustion during intermittent running.While the external validity of exhaustive exercise at fixed prescribed intensities as an assessment of exercise capacity during team games may appear questionable, these assessments should perhaps not be viewed as exhaustive exercise tests per se, but as indicators of the ability to maintain high-intensity exercise, which is a recognized marker of performance and fatigue during field-based team games. Possible mechanisms of exercise capacity enhancement include sparing of muscle glycogen, glycogen resynthesis during low-intensity exercise periods and attenuated effort perception during exercise. Most research fails to show improvements in sprint performance during team games exercise with carbohydrate ingestion, perhaps due to the lack of influence of carbohydrate on sprint performance when endogenous muscle glycogen concentration remains above a critical threshold of ∼200 mmol/kg dry weight. Despite the increasing number of publications in this area, few studies have attempted to drive the research base forward by investigating potential modulators of carbohydrate efficacy during team games exercise, preventing the formulation of optimal carbohydrate intake guidelines. Potential modulators may be different from those during prolonged steady-state exercise due to the constantly changing exercise intensity and frequency, duration and intensity of rest intervals, potential for team games exercise to slow the rate of gastric emptying and the restricted access to carbohydrate-electrolyte solutions during many team games.This review highlights fluid volume, carbohydrate concentration, carbohydrate composition and solution osmolality; the glycaemic index of preexercise meals; fluid and carbohydrate ingestion patterns; fluid temperature; carbohydrate mouthwashes; carbohydrate supplementation in different ambient temperatures; and investigation of all of these areas in different subject populations as important avenues for future research to enable a more comprehensive understanding of carbohydrate ingestion during team games exercise.

Development of the Talent Development Environment Questionnaire for Sport

Abstract As sporting challenge at the elite level becomes ever harder, maximizing effectiveness of the talent development pathway is crucial. Reflecting this need, this paper describes the development of the Talent Development Environment Questionnaire, which has been designed to facilitate the development of sporting potential to world-class standard. The questionnaire measures the experiences of developing athletes in relation to empirically identified “key features” of effective talent development environments. The first phase involved the generation of questionnaire items with clear content and face validity. The second phase explored the factor structure and reliability. This was carried out with 590 developing athletes through application of exploratory factor analysis with oblique rotation, principal axis factoring extraction and cronbach alpha tests. This yielded a 59-item, seven-factor structure with good internal consistency (0.616–0.978). The Talent Development Environment Questionnaire appears to be a promising psychometric instrument that can potentially be useful for education and formative review in applied settings, and as a measurement tool in talent development research.

Sport coaches’ perceived role frames and philosophies

Philosophy underpins all aspects of coaching and by creating a formal philosophy coaches may improve their coaching effectiveness. The role that coaches fulfill is based on their experience, knowledge, values, opinions and beliefs, but how coaches frame their role and form their philosophy is still unclear. This study investigates these aspects by interviewing coaches at various stages of their coaching career. It concludes that as coaches gain both knowledge and experience their ability to articulate a coherent philosophy and, more importantly, contextualize it for subsequent use in a more holistic coaching practice is enhanced. As a key element of coach development, the inclusion of a coaching philosophy, values clarification, and consideration of the coachs responsibilities could improve their practice and better meet the needs of their charges.

Beyond the Catecholamines Hypothesis for an Acute Exercise–Cognition Interaction: A Neurochemical Perspective

Abstract Research shows that moderate duration, moderate intensity, acute exercise generates increases in plasma catecholamines concentrations, which stimulate the vagal/nucleus tractus solitarii pathway. This induces the synthesis and release of catecholamines in the brain. Moderate increases in catecholamines concentrations facilitate performance of most cognitive tasks. Long duration, moderate intensity, and heavy exercise generate excessive concentrations of catecholamines, as well as resulting in increased concentrations of cortisol, which interact with catecholamines to inhibit working memory. However, heavy exercise has a beneficial effect on long-term memory due to activation of β-adrenoreceptors in the hippocampus and increased exercise-induced brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) levels, which aid neurogenesis and neuroplasticity. Heavy exercise also facilitates performance of autonomous tasks, probably due to activation of α1- and β-adrenoreceptors. With attention/perception tasks results are somewhat equivocal, although theoretically activation of α1- and β-adrenoreceptors should also aid the performance of these tasks.

Carbohydrate ingestion during team games exercise

There is a growing body of research on the influence of ingesting carbohydrate-electrolyte solutions immediately prior to and during prolonged intermittent, high-intensity exercise (team games exercise) designed to replicate field-based team games. This review presents the current body of knowledge in this area, and identifies avenues of further research. Almost all early work supported the ingestion of carbohydrate-electrolyte solutions during prolonged intermittent exercise, but was subject to methodological limitations. A key concern was the use of exercise protocols characterized by prolonged periods at the same exercise intensity, the lack of maximal- or high-intensity work components and long periods of seated recovery, which failed to replicate the activity pattern or physiological demand of team games exercise. The advent of protocols specifically designed to replicate the demands of field-based team games enabled a more externally valid assessment of the influence of carbohydrate ingestion during this form of exercise. Once again, the research overwhelmingly supports carbohydrate ingestion immediately prior to and during team games exercise for improving time to exhaustion during intermittent running.While the external validity of exhaustive exercise at fixed prescribed intensities as an assessment of exercise capacity during team games may appear questionable, these assessments should perhaps not be viewed as exhaustive exercise tests per se, but as indicators of the ability to maintain high-intensity exercise, which is a recognized marker of performance and fatigue during field-based team games. Possible mechanisms of exercise capacity enhancement include sparing of muscle glycogen, glycogen resynthesis during low-intensity exercise periods and attenuated effort perception during exercise. Most research fails to show improvements in sprint performance during team games exercise with carbohydrate ingestion, perhaps due to the lack of influence of carbohydrate on sprint performance when endogenous muscle glycogen concentration remains above a critical threshold of ∼200 mmol/kg dry weight. Despite the increasing number of publications in this area, few studies have attempted to drive the research base forward by investigating potential modulators of carbohydrate efficacy during team games exercise, preventing the formulation of optimal carbohydrate intake guidelines. Potential modulators may be different from those during prolonged steady-state exercise due to the constantly changing exercise intensity and frequency, duration and intensity of rest intervals, potential for team games exercise to slow the rate of gastric emptying and the restricted access to carbohydrate-electrolyte solutions during many team games.This review highlights fluid volume, carbohydrate concentration, carbohydrate composition and solution osmolality; the glycaemic index of preexercise meals; fluid and carbohydrate ingestion patterns; fluid temperature; carbohydrate mouthwashes; carbohydrate supplementation in different ambient temperatures; and investigation of all of these areas in different subject populations as important avenues for future research to enable a more comprehensive understanding of carbohydrate ingestion during team games exercise.

Running economy deteriorates following 60 min of exercise at 80% V˙O2max

Abstract Fifteen young adult Singaporean male physical education students maximum oxygen consumption [(V˙O2max) = 56 (4.7) ml · kg−1 · min−1] performed three prolonged runs in a counterbalanced design. The running bouts varied in time (40 vs 60 min) and intensity (70% vs 80% V˙O2max). Each prolonged run was separated by 7 days. The running economy (RE) at 10.8 km · h−1 during 10-min running bouts was measured before (RE1) and after (RE2) each prolonged run. A control study involved monitoring RE at 10.8 km · h−1 before and after 60 min rest. There were no differences between RE1 and RE2 values during the control run. However, there were differences between RE1 and RE2 values when separated by a prolonged run. For example, the mean (SD) changes in oxygen consumption (ml · kg−1 · min−1) values were 38.2 (2.5) versus 40.1 (2.6) (40 min at 80% V˙O2max), 38.9 (2.8) versus 41.5 (2.6) (60 min at 70% V˙O2max), and 39.0 (3.1) versus 42.7 (2.9) (60 min at 80% V˙O2max; P < 0.01). The results of this investigation support the hypothesis that RE deteriorates during prolonged running, and that the magnitude of the deterioration in RE increases with both increasing exercise intensity and duration.