John W. Boja

Rate of binding of various inhibitors at the dopamine transporter in vivo.

The rate of entry of drugs into brain is thought to be a factor in their abuse liability. In this investigation, we have examined the rate of entry and binding at dopamine transporters in mouse striatum for a variety of dopamine transporter inhibitors. The method utilized was based on measuring the displacement of3H-WIN 35,428 from striatal dopamine transporter sites in vivo at different times. Eleven cocaine analogs (RTI-31, RTI-32, RTI-51, RTI-55, RTI-113, RTI-114, RTI-117, RTI-120, RTI-121, WIN 35,065-2, and WIN 35,428) as well as other dopamine uptake site blockers (bupropion, nomifensine, and methylphenidate) were compared with (−) cocaine for their rates of displacement of3H-WIN 35,428 binding in vivo. The drugs that displayed the fastest occupancy rates were bupropion, (−) cocaine, nomifensine, and methylphenidate. RTI-51, RTI-121, RTI-114, RTI-117, RTI-120, RTI-32, RTI-55, and RTI-113, showed intermediate rates, whereas RTI-31, WIN 35,065-2, and WIN 35,428 exhibited the slowest rates of displacement. While many of the cocaine analogs have proven to be behaviorally and pharmacologically more potent than (−) cocaine, their rates of entry and binding site occupancy were slower than that for (−) cocaine. Earliest times of transporter occupancy by the different drugs were correlated (although weakly) with their degree of lipophilicity (r=0.59;P<0.02). Kinetic effects and metabolism of the compounds could complicate the interpretations of these data. There was no obvious correlation between rate of occupancy in this animal model and abuse liability in humans, which is consistent with the notion that other factors are critical as well.

New, potent cocaine analogs: ligand binding and transport studies in rat striatum

Two potent cocaine analogs have been developed that have the highest known affinities for the cocaine binding site in rat striatum. Both 3 beta-(4-chlorophenyl)- (RTI-COC-31) and 3 beta-(4-methylphenyl)-tropane-2-carboxylic acid methyl ester (RTI-COC-32) compete for [3H]WIN 35,428 and [3H]mazindol binding with a IC50 that is 100 times more potent than that of (-) cocaine. Additionally, these compounds inhibit [3H]dopamine uptake with a similar, high potency. These results may lead to the development of high affinity probes for the cocaine binding site.

[3H]cocaine binding and inhibition of [3H]dopamine uptake is similar in both the rat striatum and nucleus accumbens

Cocaine binds with high affinity to the dopamine transporter in both the striatum and the nucleus accumbens. We examined Na(+)-dependent [3H]cocaine binding, mazindol inhibition of [3H]cocaine binding and cocaine inhibition of [3H]dopamine uptake in both rat brain areas. The striatum and nucleus accumbens demonstrated Na(+)-dependent [3H]cocaine binding with similar densities. Mazindol inhibited [3H]cocaine binding with a similar IC50 in both the striatum and nucleus accumbens. Likewise, cocaine inhibited [3H]dopamine uptake in both brain regions with equivalent efficacy. From these data we conclude that the dopamine transporter is similar in both the striatum and nucleus accumbens.

DOPAMINE TRANSPORTER : DEGLYCOSYLATION WITH EXO- AND ENDOGLYCOSIDASES

The dopamine transporter from rat caudate-putamen was photolabeled with [125I]DEEP as previously described. Treatment of photolabeled membranes with neuraminidase and N-glycanase reduced the molecular weight of the [125I]DEEP photolabeled dopamine transporter complex, whereas treatment with alpha-mannosidase had no effect. The solubilized [125I]DEEP photolabeled dopamine transporter complex readily bound to wheat-germ agglutinin but not to concanavalin-A sepharose columns. These results suggest that the carbohydrate moiety of the dopamine transporter is N-linked and contains significant quantities of sialic acid but not high mannose residues. A DEEP binding protein was readily detectable in other brain regions including the nucleus accumbens and olfactory tubercle, but not in the prefrontal cortex, olfactory bulb or hypothalamus under similar conditions. The DEEP binding protein in the other brain regions was similar to that in the striatum.

[3H]WIN 35,065-2: a ligand for cocaine receptors in striatum.

Abstract: [3H]WIN 35,065–2 binding to striatal membranes was characterized, primarily by centrifugation assay. Like [3H]cocaine, [3H]WIN 35,065–2 binds to both high‐ and low‐affinity sites. [3H]WIN 35,065–2, however, exhibits consistently higher affinities than [3H]cocaine. Saturation experiments indicate a low‐affinity binding site with an apparent KD of ∼ 160 nM and a Bmaxof 135 fmol/mg of tissue. A high‐affinity site has also been identified with an apparent KD of 5.6 nM and a Bmax of 5.2 fmol/mg of tissue. The specific‐to‐nonspecific binding ratios with [3H]WIN 35,065–2 were higher than with [3H]cocaine in both centrifugation and filtration assays. Pharmacological characterization suggests that [3H]WIN 35,065–2 binds to the dopamine transporter. Mazindol, GBR 12909, nomifensine, and (‐)‐cocaine are potent inhibitors of [3H]WIN 35,065–2 binding. In contrast, the norepinephrine transporter ligand desipramine is a weak inhibitor, and the serotonin transporter ligand citalopram does not inhibit binding. The effect of sodium on binding was examined under conditions in which (a) the low‐affinity site was primarily (87%) occupied and (b) ∼50% of both sites were occupied. The results indicate that both sites are sodium dependent. Injection of 6‐hydroxydopamine into the striatum results in a significant loss of both high‐ and low‐affinity sites, a finding suggesting that both sites are on dopaminergic nerve terminals. Taken together, these data are consistent with the presence of multiple cocaine binding sites associated with the dopamine transporter.

Effect of dopaminergic drugs on the in vivo binding of [3H]WIN 35,428 to central dopamine transporters

[11C]WIN 35,428 (also designated [11C]CFT) is now being used in several positron emission tomography (PET) centers to image dopamine (DA) transporter sites in the mammalian brain. Whether and to what extent in vivo WIN 35,428 binding is influenced by intra‐ and extrasynaptic dopamine levels are largely unknown. The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the effects of various drugs, known to affect DA levels and release, on the binding of [3H]WIN 35,428 to central DA transporters in the mouse brain.

Highly Potent Cocaine Analogs Cause Long-Lasting Increases in Locomotor Activity

Three cocaine analogs were compared with cocaine for the capacity to affect: (1) dopamine transporter binding and function; and (2) locomotor activity. RTI-55 (3 beta-[4-iodophenyl]tropane-2 beta-carboxylic acid methyl ester tartrate), RTI-121 (3 beta-[4-iodophenyl] tropan-2 beta-carboxylic acid isopropyl ester hydrochloride) and RTI-130 (3 beta-[4-chlorophenyl-2 beta-[1,2,4-oxadiazol-3-phenyl-5-yl]tropane hydrochloride) competed for [3H]WIN 35428 binding in rat striatum in vitro, with IC50 values at least 50-fold less than that of cocaine. These analogs inhibited [3H]dopamine transport into rat striatal synaptosomes, with IC50 values again less (at least 100-fold) than that for cocaine. Intravenous RTI-55, RTI-121 or RTI-130 injection effected dose-related increases in locomotor activity in mice, with estimated relative potencies at least 10-fold greater than that of cocaine. These increases were long lasting: whereas increased activity ceased within 2 h after cocaine administration, increased locomotion was observed at least 10 h after RTI-55, RTI-121, or RTI-130 administration. Parallel line analysis indicated that the slopes of the ascending portion of the RTI-121 and RTI-130 dose-response curves differed from that of cocaine, suggesting the involvement of mechanisms different from that of cocaine.

High potency cocaine analogs: Neurochemical, imaging, and behavioral studies

Recent evidence suggests the behavioral properties of cocaine are related to its ability to inhibit dopamine (DA) reuptake.1.2 Specific binding sites tbr cocaine have been identified with a host of Iqpnds, including [3H]cocaine.3-5 However, the use of [3H]cocaine as a ligand presents many problems, including its low affinity and rapid dissociation rate. While other non-cocaine-like lignds such as GBR 12935, mazindol, and nomifensine overcome the problems of low affinity and rapid dissociation, they present problems of their own. These ligands bind to a single high aflinity site, while cocaine binds to both a high and low affinity site. Furthermore, Madras et af .6 reported that [3H]cocaine was not l l l y displaced by these non-cocaine-like drugs. Thus it appears that in order to correctly identify the molecular structural requirements fbr cocaine binding one must utilize cocaine or cocaine analogs. It was reported by Clarke et af.7 that removal of the ester linkage between the phenyl ring and tropane ring of cocaine (FIG. 1) results in the compound designated WIN 35,065-2. This compound demonstrated a hlgher affinity for the dopamine transporter than cocaine itself. Addition of fluorine to the pm-position of the phenyl ring (WIN 35,428, also designated CET) hrther enhanced potency. Both WIN 35,065-2 and WIN 35,428 have been radioactively labeled and have proven to be superior ligands fbr in vim binding studies when compared to cocaine.6*8

Synthesis and in vivo studies of a selective ligand for the dopamine transporter: 3β-(4-[125I]iodophenyl) tropan-2β-carboxylic acid isopropyl ester ([125I]RTM-21)

Abstract A selective ligand for the dopamine transporter 3β-(4-iodophenyl)tropan-2β-carboxylic acid isopropyl ester (RTI-121) has been labeled with iodine-125 by electrophilic radioiododestannylation. The [ 125 I]RTI-121 was obtained in good yield (86 ± 7%, n = 3) with high radiochemical purity (>99%) and specific radioactivity (1210–1950 mCi/μmol). After i.v. administration of [ 125 I]RTI-121 to mice, the rank order of regional brain tissue radioactivity (striatum > olfactory tubercles ⪢> cortex, hippocampus, thalamus, hypothalamus, cerebellum) was consistent with dopamine transporter labeling. Specific in vivo binding in striatum and olfactory tubercles was saturable, and was blocked by the dopamine transporter ligands GBR 12,909 and (±)-nomifensine. By contrast, binding was not reduced by paroxetine, a serotonin transporter inhibitor, or desipramine, a norepinephrine transporter inhibitor. A variety of additional drugs having high affinities for recognition sites other than the neuronal dopamine transporter also had no effect. The [ 125 I]RTI-121 binding in striatum and olfactory tubercles was inhibited by d -amphetamine in dose-dependent fashion. Nonmetabolized radioligand represents 85% of the signal observed in extracts of whole mouse brain. Thus, [ 125 I]RTI-121 is readily prepared, and is a useful tracer for dopamine transporter studies in vivo .

Dopamine transport: pharmacological distinction between the synaptic membrane and the vesicular transporter in rat striatum

The pharmacological properties of the monoamine transporters in the synaptic vesicles and of the dopamine transporters in the synaptic plasma membrane were compared. Tetrabenazine, an inhibitor of the vesicular transporter did not block ligand binding to the plasma membrane transporter. Various potent cocaine analogues and other compounds active at the plasma membrane transporter did not block ligand binding to the vesicular transporter. These data indicate pharmacological differences between the vesicular and synaptic membrane transporters.