John W. Maag

Depression among students with learning disabilities: assessing the risk.

Researchers have found that students with learning disabilities (LD) obtain statistically higher scores on measures of depression than their peers without LD. However, what is not known is whether students with LD display greater levels of clinical depression than their peers without LD. If they do, then special education services should address this area of concern. If they do not, then the current mental health system may be adequate to treat children and adolescents with depression regardless of whether they have concomitant LD. The purpose of this study was to meta-analyze the data-based literature and quantify mean differences in depression measure scores and levels of clinical depression between students with and without LD.

Social Skills Training for Students with Emotional and Behavioral Disorders: A Review of Reviews:

Teaching social skills to students with emotional and behavioral disorders (EBD) has become an accepted practice. Literally hundreds of social skills training (SST) efficacy studies for students with EBD appear in the literature. As a result, many authors have published both narrative and meta-analytic reviews of the literature. Reviews have highlighted various problem areas as targets for future research. Nevertheless, SST has subsequently often resulted in only modest changes in the social competence of students with EBD. The purpose of this article is to review the reviews on SST with students with EBD, discuss issues based on conclusions reached, and present implications for practice.

SElf-Graphing of On-Task Behavior: Enhancing the Reactive Effects of Self-Monitoring on On-Task Behavior and Academic Performance:

This study investigated the effects of self-graphing on improving the reactivity of self-monitoring procedures for two students with learning disabilities. Differential effects of self-evaluation and self-reinforcement were assessed along with self-monitoring and self-graphing using a single-case multiple-treatment design. Subjects self-monitored and self-graphed their on-task behavior. Measures of academic arithmetic performance (productivity and accuracy) were collected simultaneously. For both students, on-task behavior and academic performance improved during self-monitoring, with additional increases due to self-graphing. However, little improvement in on-task behavior and academic productivity was noted with the introduction of self-reinforcement and self-evaluation, although academic accuracy increased slightly for both. Implications for research and practice are discussed.

WHO ARE THE CHILDREN WITH ATTENTION DEFICIT-HYPERACTIVITY DISORDER? A SCHOOL-BASED SURVEY:

Attention Deficit-Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is one of the most frequently diagnosed and thoroughly researched disorders of childhood; however, little is known about ADHD in the school setting. We examined demographic data, disability categories, placement, academic achievement, and educational treatment of children clinically diagnosed as having ADHD among a group of 14,229 students in a public school district. Of 136 students with ADHD, over half (n = 77) were receiving special education services: Forty were identified as behaviorally disordered, 22 as learning disabled, 7 as mildly mentally retarded, 1 as other health impaired, and 1 as orthopedically handicapped. The most common special education placement for students with ADHD was the general education classroom plus resource support (n = 50). Mathematics and reading achievement scores varied greatly. Over 90% of the students with ADHD were taking medication. Behavior modification, consultation, one-to-one instruction, and modified assignment format were used significantly more often with students with ADHD who were receiving special education services than students with ADHD who were not receiving special education services. Implications for research and practice are presented.

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder as a Disability Category: A Critique:

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) has generated a great deal of interest recently among the special education profession. Various groups have advocated making ADHD a separate disability category under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act. As a result, children with this disorder would be eligible for special education services. Proponents argue that at least 50% of students with ADHD currently are not receiving special education services they require under existing categories. The argument for considering ADHD as a disability category rests on the assumption that it is a valid psychiatric disorder and is characterized by academic difficulties. We challenge the validity of these assumptions and examine social and cultural factors we believe fuel the perceived need for ADHD as a new disability category.

Prevalence and Predictors of Substance Use A Comparison Between Adolescents With and Without Learning Disabilities

A considerable body of literature has accumulated that examines patterns of substance use and abuse among adolescents attending general education classes. However, much less information exists on the prevalence and predictors of substance use among adolescents with learning disabilities. One purpose of this study was to determine the comparative prevalence of tobacco, alcohol, and marijuana use among a sample of 123 students with learning disabilities (91 male and 32 female, mean age = 14.37 years) and 138 nondisabled students (77 male and 61 female, mean age = 13.71 years). A second purpose was to determine whether two psychosocial variables (self-esteem and type of behavior problem) or severity of drinking problem best predicted use of tobacco and marijuana. Students were administered the Self-Esteem Inventory (SEI)-School form (Coopersmith, 1987) and the Adolescent Drinking Index (ADD (Harrell & Wirtz, 1989); their teachers completed the Revised Behavior Problem Checklist (RBPC) (Quay & Peterson, 1987). Tobacco and marijuana use were proportionally higher for adolescents with learning disabilities; no differences emerged for alcohol use between groups. A discriminant function analysis revealed that scores on the SEI and subscale scores of the RBPC did not reliably predict tobacco or marijuana use for either group. ADI scores were reliable predictors of marijuana use for students with learning disabilities and tobacco use for both groups.

Challenges Facing Successful Transition for Youths with E/BD.

In 1990, the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act added a new mandate that the individualized education program for all students age 16 and older must include a statement of the transition services needed to prepare them for postschool activities. Providing transition services to youths with emotional or behavioral disorders (E/BD) has been particularly difficult because their problems are often intractable and, consequently result in poor outcomes such as dropping out of school, unemployment, incarceration, and psychopathology This article describes challenges involved in ensuring successful transition for youths with E/BD and makes recommendations for improving transition services.

Behavioral Intervention Plans: Legal and Practical Considerations for Students with Emotional and Behavioral Disorders.

Reauthorization of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) specifies that a behavioral intervention plan (BIP) must be developed for students with disabilities under certain disciplinary exclusions. IDEA, however, does not provide details as to what should be included in BIPs, and this lack of specific guidance often results in confusion and controversy. Hopefully, school personnel draw guidance from best practices in the field. Unfortunately, what is considered best practice is not always viewed as necessary, or is at least questioned, by schools. Therefore, this article addresses three areas. First, an overview of what should appear in a BIP is provided based on evidence-based practices. Second, legal issues in the development and implementation of BIPs are presented by examining statutory provisions and established case law. Third, recommendations for educators are presented so that effective and legally mandated BIPs can be developed, implemented, and evaluated.

Teacher Preparation in E/BD: A National Survey.

Surveys investigating teacher preparation program requirements and competencies for training teachers to work with students with emotional and behavioral disorders (E/BD) were mailed to 219 directors of E/BD training programs at colleges and universities representing 41 states. A total of 101 surveys from 32 states were returned, for a final response rate of 46%. Information was obtained over two primary areas: E/BD program practices and E/BD program competencies. Results of this survey were mixed. There were some encouraging practices such as offering E/BD programming at the graduate level. E/BD program competencies such as instruction, assessment, and behavior management were taught most frequently. However, there were some areas such as special education law and multicultural issues that received little attention. Other important competencies such as social skills instruction and transition practices were not even mentioned.

Cognitive-Behavioral Interventions for Depression: Review and Implications for School Personell.

Depression is one of the most commonly diagnosed psychiatric disorders among school-age youths. As such, school personnel should play an important role in the identification, assessment, and treatment of depression and related problems in school. School-based treatment of depression is especially relevant for students with emotional and behavioral disorders (EBD) and learning disabilities (LD) because they may be at a higher risk than their nondisabled peers of displaying depressive symptomatology. Cognitive-behavioral interventions (CBIs) have shown promise as an evidence-based treatment for childhood and adolescent depressive disorders. This article focuses on how CBI techniques can be used by school personnel under the proper clinical supervision for reducing students’ depressive symptomatology. First, common CBI techniques are described. Second, empirical studies using CBI to treat children and adolescents who are depressed are reviewed. Finally, implications for using these techniques in a collaborative effort among school psychologists, counselors, and special educators in an ethical and valid manner are presented.