Johnny Jakobsen

Configurational Entropy in Thermoset Polymers

The configurational entropy describes the atomic structure in a material and controls several material properties. Often the configurational entropy is determined through dielectric or calorimetric measurements where the difference between the entropies of the crystalline state and the amorphous state is determined. Many amorphous materials such as thermoset polymers have a high crystallization barrier, greatly limiting the applicability of the existing methods for determining the configurational entropy. In this work, a novel differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) method, based on measurement of the glass transition temperature at different heating rates, for determination of the configurational entropy is introduced. The theory behind the method has a universal character for amorphous materials, as it solely involves measurement of the glass transition temperature. The temperature dependency of the configurational entropy is determined for epoxy resins and PMMA (poly(methyl methacrylate)) to demonstrate the versatility of the method. On the basis of the findings of the introduced method, the influence of the degree of cross-linking and the chemical structure of the network is discussed.

A novel biaxial specimen for inducing residual stresses in thermoset polymers and fibre composite material

A new type of specimen configuration with the purpose of introducing a well-defined biaxial residual (axisymmetric) stress field in a neat thermoset or a fibre composite material is presented. The ability to experimentally validate residual stress predictions is an increasing need for design engineers when they challenge the material limits in present and future thermoset and composite component. In addition to the new specimen configuration, this paper presents an analytical solution for the residual stress state in the specimen. The analytical solution assumes linear elastic and isotropic material behaviour. Experimental strain release measurements and the analytical solution determine the residual stress state present in the material. A demonstration on neat epoxy is conducted and residual stress predictions of high accuracy and repeatability have been achieved. The precise determination of the biaxial stress state in the specimen after cure makes it suitable for calibrating residual stress models.

In-situ Curing Strain Monitoring of a Flat Plate Residual Stress Specimen Using a Chopped Stand Mat Glass/Epoxy Composite as Test Material

The curing stresses in a newly proposed bi-axial residual stress testing configuration are studied using a chopped strand mat glass/epoxy specimen. In-situ monitoring of the curing is conducted using dielectric and fibre Bragg grating sensors. It is confirmed that a bi-axial residual stress state can be introduced in the specimens during curing and a quantification of its magnitude is presented. An alternative decomposition method used for converting the dielectric signal into a material state variable is proposed and good agreement with models found in the literature is obtained. From the cure cycles chosen it is suggested that any stress build up in the un-vitrified state is relaxed immediately and only stress build up in the vitrified state contributes to the residual stress state in the specimen.

A comparison of gel point for a glass/epoxy composite and a neat epoxy material during isothermal curing

Determination of gel point is important for a modelling assessment of residual stresses developed during curing of composite materials. Residual stresses in a composite structure may have a detrimental effect on its mechanical performance and compromise its integrity. In this article, the evolution in bending stiffness of a glass/epoxy composite material during an isothermal curing process is examined to identify different material stages and behaviour. Differential scanning calorimetry and dynamic mechanical analysis are used to analyse the material behaviour. Gelation is identified as a clear onset in bending stiffness, and vitrification is seen as a decrease in the bending stiffness rate. Often gel point predictions for composite materials are based on neat matrix measurements. However, the results presented in this article demonstrate that the gel point is affected by the presence of the fibre reinforcement.

Modeling of Prepregs during Automated Draping Sequences

The behavior of wowen prepreg fabric during automated draping sequences is investigated. A drape tool under development with an arrangement of grippers facilitates the placement of a woven prepreg fabric in a mold. It is essential that the draped configuration is free from wrinkles and other defects. The present study aims at setting up a virtual draping framework capable of modeling the draping process from the initial flat fabric to the final double curved shape and aims at assisting the development of an automated drape tool. The virtual draping framework consists of a kinematic mapping algorithm used to generate target points on the mold which are used as input to a draping sequence planner. The draping sequence planner prescribes the displacement history for each gripper in the drape tool and these displacements are then applied to each gripper in a transient model of the draping sequence. The model is based on a transient finite element analysis with the material’s constitutive behavior currently be...

Quasi-Static Testing of New Peel Stopper Design for Sandwich Structures

A sandwich material is a layered assembly made of two thin strong face sheets separated by and bonded to a compliant lightweight core. This provides a lightweight structural element with very high bending stiffness and very high strength. Such structural sandwich elements, which may possess other desirable features such as high thermal insulation, high internal damping, high corrosion resistance, low maintenance costs, etc., are well suited for applications in the aerospace, marine, automotive, sustainable energy industries as well as in civil engineering. However, sandwich structures are sensitive to failure due to delamination between the face sheets and the core, for instance due to impact or fatigue damages. Such delaminations may start without prior warning, propagate very fast and eventually lead to a complete failure of the sandwich structure.

Development of a Computationally Efficient Fabric Model for Optimization of Gripper Trajectories in Automated Composite Draping

An automated prepreg fabric draping system is being developed which consists of an array of actuated grippers. It has the ability to pick up a fabric ply and place it onto a double-curved mold surface. A previous research effort based on a nonlinear Finite Element model showed that the movements of the grippers should be chosen carefully to avoid misplacement and induce of wrinkles in the draped configuration. Thus, the present study seeks to develop a computationally efficient model of the mechanical behavior of a fabric based on 2D catenaries which can be used for optimization of the gripper trajectories. The model includes bending stiffness, large deflections, large ply shear and a simple contact formulation. The model is found to be quick to evaluate and gives very reasonable predictions of the displacement field.

Fatigue damage simulation of tension-tension loaded glass/polyester fiber composites with thickness tapering effects

This study evaluates the capability of a progressive damage method in predicting the fatigue failure in glass/polyester fiber composite materials. Residual material properties in different failure modes have been obtained from testing fatigue-loaded specimens to their ultimate limits. A numerical tool utilizes the experimentally obtained values to simulate the process of damage in more complex models with high interlaminar shear stresses. The tool accounts for fatigue damage through stiffness and strength degradation rules without relying on prior calibration/modifications. Benchmark ply-drop problems under constant and variable amplitude fatigue loadings are simulated and compared against experimental results. Verification case studies show that the numerical tool can predict damage initiation and final fatigue life, successfully.

Local fatigue behavior in tapered areas of large offshore wind turbine blades

Thickness transitions in load carrying elements lead to improved geometries and efficient material utilization. However, these transitions may introduce localized areas with high stress concentrations and may act as crack initiators that could potentially cause delamination and further catastrophic failure of an entire blade structure. The local strength degradation under an ultimate static loading, subsequent to several years of fatigue, is predicted for an offshore wind turbine blade. Fatigue failure indexes of different damage modes are calculated using a sub-modeling approach. Multi axial stresses are accounted for using a developed failure criterion with residual strengths instead of the virgin strengths. Damage initiation is predicted by including available Wohler curve data of E-Glass fabrics and epoxy matrix into multi-axial fatigue failure criteria. As a result of this study, proper knock-down factors for ply-drop effects in wind turbine blades under multi-axial static and fatigue loadings can be obtained.

Investigation of the Residual Stress State in an Epoxy Based Specimen

Process induced residual stresses may play an important role under service loading conditions for fiber reinforced composite. They may initiate premature cracks and alter the internal stress level. Therefore, the developed numerical models have to be validated with the experimental observations. In the present work, the formation of the residual stresses/strains are captured from experimental measurements and numerical models. An epoxy/steel based sample configuration is considered which creates an in-plane biaxial stress state during curing of the resin. A hole drilling process with a diameter of 5 mm is subsequently applied to the specimen and the released strains after drilling are measured using the Digital Image Correlation (DIC) technique. The material characterization of the utilized epoxy material is obtained from the experimental tests such as differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) for the curing behavior, dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) for the elastic modulus evolution during the process and a thermo-mechanical analysis (TMA) for the coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) and curing shrinkage. A numerical process model is also developed by taking the constitutive material models, i.e. cure kinetics, elastic modulus, CTE, chemical shrinkage, etc. together with the drilling process using the finite element method. The measured and predicted in-plane residual strain states are compared for the epoxy/metal biaxial stress specimen.