Jon Martin Arnemo

Biomedical Protocols for Free-ranging Brown Bears, Gray Wolves, Wolverines and Lynx Editors

PREFACE Compilation of this document was initiated by the Norwegian Directorate for Nature Management in order to establish recommended protocols for capture, chemical immobilization, anesthesia and radiotagging of free-ranging brown bears (Ursus arctos), gray wolves (Canis lupus), wolverines (Gulo gulo) and Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx). In addition, procedures to ensure proper sampling of biological materials for management, research and banking purposes have been included. The current protocols are based on nearly 3,000 captures of free-ranging brown bears, wolves, wolverines and lynx carried out from 1984 through 2012 in Scandinavia. Some of the results have been published as peer reviewed papers, conference presentations, theses, and reports. However, a large amount of data are still on file and will be published in the future. In addition, comprehensive reviews of the global literature on brown bears, wolves, wolverines and lynx have been carried out in order to include pertinent information from other sources. These protocols have been approved by all ongoing research projects on brown bears, wolves, wolverines and lynx in Scandinavia. We thank the contributors for their cooperative efforts. We also thank the Norwegian Directorate for Nature Management for their support.

Multistage, Long-Range Natal Dispersal by a Global Positioning System–Collared Scandinavian Wolf

Abstract We document a new record dispersal for wolves worldwide. The natal straight-line dispersal distance of a Global Positioning System–collared female wolf from the Scandinavian population was 1,092 km from southeast Norway to northeast Finland, with a multistage actual travel distance of >10,000 km. Natural gene flow to the isolated, inbred Scandinavian wolf population may occur if survival of dispersers is improved.

Activity patterns of predator and prey: a simultaneous study of GPS-collared wolves and moose

This is the postprint version of the article published in Animal behaviour. You can find the published article here: http://dx.doi.org/doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2010.11.011

Encounter frequencies between GPS-collared wolves (Canis lupus) and moose (Alces alces) in a Scandinavian wolf territory

Over 6,000 GPS fixes from two wolves (Canis lupus) and 30,000 GPS fixes from five moose (Alces alces) in a wolf territory in southern Scandinavia were used to assess the static and dynamic interactions between predator and prey individuals. Our results showed that wolves were closer to some of the moose when inside their home ranges than expected if they had moved independently of each other, and we also found a higher number of close encounters (<500xa0m) than expected. This suggests that the wolves were actively seeking the individual moose within their territory. Furthermore, the wolves showed a preference for moving on gravel forest roads, which may be used as convenient travel routes when patrolling the territory and seeking areas where the moose are. However, due to the particularly large size of the wolf territory combined with relatively high moose densities, the wolves generally spent a very small proportion of their time inside the home range of each individual moose, and the frequency of encounters between the wolves and any particular moose was very low. We suggest that the high moose:wolf ratio in this large Scandinavian wolf territory compared to that typically occurring in North America, results in a relatively low encounter frequency and a low predation risk for individual moose, as the predation pressure is spread over a high number of prey individuals.

Use of intraperitoneal radio-transmitters in lynx Lynx lynx kittens: anaesthesia, surgery and behaviour

The suitability of intraperitoneally implanted radio-transmitters as a method for studying young lynx Lynx lynx kittens was tested under field conditions. Radio-marked adult females were followed to the lair where they kept their kittens. In 1997 and 1998, nine kittens (4–5 weeks old) were located. One of two implant models (7 g and 20 g) were implanted using surgical procedures and a combination of medetomidine (0.08 mg/kg) and ketamine (5 mg/kg) for anaesthesia. No complications occurred during the operations. All kittens were accepted again by their mother and were moved to a new lair within 1 km. All survived at least three months after the operation. Six of the kittens were re-examined 4–5 months after the operation. In all of these cases the implants were floating freely in the peritoneal cavity. Based on these results it appears that intraperitoneal implanting of radio-transmitters is a very useful method for studying very young lynx kittens, and could be used for most felids of a similar, or larger, size.

Haematological and serum biochemical reference values in free-ranging red deer (Cervus elaphus atlanticus)

Analyses of haematological and biochemical constituents were carried out on the Norwegian subspecies of free-ranging red deer (Cervus elaphus atlanticus). All animals were captured from January to March by using a mixture of xylazine and tiletamin-zolazepam. Immobilisation was performed with plastic projectile syringes fired from a dart gun. Fourteen haematological parameters were analysed. There were no differences in the values between hinds and stags and between adults and calves (P > 0.01). Of the 22 biochemical compounds investigated there was a significant difference (P < 0.01) between calves and adults for lactate dehydrogenase (LD), globulin, beta globulin, gamma globulin, and the minerals Na, K, Mg, Zn, Ca, and P. Differences (P < 0.01) between hinds and stags were found in cholesterol, gamma glutamyl transferase (GGT), alpha-1 globulin, alpha-2 globulin and Cu. The blood values determined in this study can be used as reference values for this red deer subspecies immobilised with a mixture of xylazine-tiletamin-zolazepam for health control and diagnosis of diseases.

Field anaesthetic and surgical techniques for implantation of intraperitoneal radio transmitters in Eurasian beavers Castor fiber

Radio transmitters were implanted intraperitoneally in 22 (nine females, 13 males) adult, territorial Eurasian beavers Castor fiber under field conditions. Two different injectable anaesthestic drug combinations were tested. Access to the peritoneal cavity was made through a ventral midline incision. The animals in group # 1 (N = 10) were initially injected with medetomidine (0.05 mg/kg), ketamine (5 mg/kg) and butorphanol (0.1 mg/kg). Three animals needed additional injections of the drug combination. Muscle relaxation was poor and variable and some of the animals were sound sensitive. When midazolam (0.25 mg/kg) was added to the drug combination (group # 2), muscle relaxation was excellent and the beavers (N = 12) did not react to sound stimuli. All surgeries were successfully performed. One animal in group # 1 died postoperatively due to circulatory failure. The behaviour and movements of the beavers did not appear to be affected by the procedure or the implant, except for the first few days when more time was spent inside the lodges. All beavers stayed in their original territory until they died, or as long as 17–24 months after the implantation. Based on these results, it appears that an injectable drug combination based on medetomidine, ketamine, butorphanol and midazolam and a surgical access through the ventral midline is suitable for implanting radio transmitters intraperitoneally in beavers under field conditions.

Hematology and serum clinical chemistry reference intervals for free-ranging Scandinavian gray wolves (Canis lupus)

BACKGROUNDnScandinavian free-ranging wolves (Canis lupus) are endangered, such that laboratory data to assess their health status is increasingly important. Although wolves have been studied for decades, most biological information comes from captive animals.nnnOBJECTIVESnThe objective of the present study was to establish reference intervals for 30 clinical chemical and 8 hematologic analytes in Scandinavian free-ranging wolves.nnnMETHODSnAll wolves were tracked and chemically immobilized from a helicopter before examination and blood sampling in the winter of 7 consecutive years (1998-2004). Seventy-nine blood samples were collected from 57 gray wolves, including 24 juveniles (24 samples), 17 adult females (25 samples), and 16 adult males (30 samples). Whole blood and serum samples were stored at refrigeration temperature for 1-3 days before hematologic analyses and for 1-5 days before serum biochemical analyses. Reference intervals were calculated as 95% confidence intervals except for juveniles where the minimum and maximum values were used.nnnRESULTSnSignificant differences were observed between adult and juvenile wolves for RBC parameters, alkaline phosphatase and amylase activities, and total protein, albumin, gamma-globulins, cholesterol, creatinine, calcium, chloride, magnesium, phosphate, and sodium concentrations.nnnCONCLUSIONnCompared with published reference values for captive wolves, reference intervals for free-ranging wolves reflected exercise activity associated with capture (higher creatine kinase activity, higher glucose concentration), and differences in nutritional status (higher urea concentration).

Effects of medetomidine and atipamezole on serum glucose and cortisol levels in captive reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus)

Serum concentrations of glucose and Cortisol were measured in five adult captive reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus) at 24 h and 10 min before, and at 0.5, 1,2,4, 8, 12 and 24 h after, treatment with 60 p.g/kg of medetomidine i.v. followed by 300 jig/kg of atipamezole i.v. 60 min later. The experiments were performed in January and repeated in July-August. The animals were used as their own controls and treated with saline in July-August. The wash-out period between experiments in summer was 2 weeks or more. No obvious seasonal differences were observed. Mederomidine induced a 2.5-fold increase in glucose (mean ± standard error of the mean being 15.4 ± 0.6 mmol/1 at 1 h) and a 3.5-fold increase Cortisol (349 ± 28 nmol/1 at 0.5 h). Serum glucose reached control levels within 12 h, and Cortisol declined to baseline levels within 4 h after injection og medetomidine. The use of blood concentrations of glucose and Cortisol to assess nutritonal status, body condition and stress may be significantly biased in animals chemically immobilized with medetomidine or other alpha-2 adrenoceptor agonists.

Immobilization of free-ranging moose (Alces alces) with medetomidine-ketamine and remobilization with atipamezole

Seventeen free-ranging moose {Alces alces) (2 adult males, 13 adult females and 2 female calves) were immobilized with a combination of medetomidine hydochloride (MED) and ketamine hydrochloride (KET) in early autumn (August-September). Drugs were administrated with plastic projectile syringes fired from a dart gun, either from a car or by approaching the animals on foot. MED at 30 mg/adult and 15 mg/calf in combination with KET at 400 mg/adult and 200 mg/calf induced complete immobilization with sternal or lateral recumbency and loss of the corneal reflex in all individuals. The mean ± SD time from darting to when the animals were found was 18.3 ± 8.7 min for adults and the mean distance covered by these animals between darting and recumbency was 320 + 200 m. No side effects of clinical significance were detected and registration of the rectal temperature (38.8 ± 0.5°C), heart rate (44 ± 7 beats/min), respiratory rate (31 ±20 breaths/min) and relative arterial oxygen saturation (89 ± 3 %, n=8) during immobilization in adults showed that these physiological parameters were within the safe ranges established for moose. Blood samples from adults were analyzed for 17 haematological and 33 serum biochemical constituents and the results were compared to corresponding values found in moose immobilized with etorphine (ETO). Although the lower levels (p<0.05) found for haematocrit, red blood cells, haemoglobin and Cortisol in the MED-KET group may indicate a difference in the stress response, the low muscle enzyme levels in both groups show that these immobilizing drugs and capture methods induce very little physical stress in moose. A hyperglycaemic response was found in MED-KET treated animals. Atipamezole hydrochloride (ATI) rapidly remobilized all animals and the time elapsing from ATI administration to standing was 3-9 ± 1.8 min after i.v./s.c. treatment (n=7) and 6.9 ± 3.4 min after i.m./s.c. injection (n=8). No side effects were detected after reversal. In conclusion, medetomidine-ketamine and atipamezole can be recommended for reversible immobilization of free-ranging moose in early autumn.