Jon Maskaly

Quick on the Draw

Police officers have a continuum of force options available to them, but, without question, the most extreme of these options is deadly force. Recent officer-involved shootings in the United States, and their subsequent media attention, have placed police use of deadly force at the forefront of political, academic, and policy conversations. While the extant literature has uncovered numerous structural, organizational, and situational predictors of police shootings, studies to date are more limited with respect to individual-level factors and have essentially ignored criminological theoretical constructs. Using Gottfredson and Hirschi’s general theory of crime as a theoretical framework, the current study fills a gap in the literature by using personal and agency records of 1,935 Philadelphia police officers to examine the relationship between low self-control and officer-involved shootings. The results indicate that officers with lower self-control are significantly more likely to have been involved in a police shooting.

Enhancing Title Ix Due Process Standards in Campus Sexual Assault Adjudication: Considering the Roles of Distributive, Procedural, and Restorative Justice.

ABSTRACT Title IX prohibits sex discrimination—including sexual assault—in higher education. The Department of Education Office for Civil Rights’ 2011 “Dear Colleague Letter” outlines recommendations for campus sexual assault adjudication allowing a variety of procedures that fail to protect accused students’ due process rights and victims’ rights under Title IX. This article reviews two diminished due process rights in campus adjudication: cross-examination and the preponderance of the evidence standard. We use an organizational justice theoretical framework to show that limitations on due process rights reduce fair outcomes for both victims and the accused. We provide recommendations for a restorative justice approach to campus adjudication that operates within this theoretical framework to increase fair outcomes in adjudication, bolster perceptions of adjudicatory system legitimacy, and reduce campus sexual assault.

Police CEOs and subordinates’ perceptions of workplace misconduct: Examining the effect of demographic similarity on attitudinal congruence

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to examine whether homophily – whereby people are influenced by those perceived as similar to themselves – affects attitudes toward police misconduct. Specifically, whether demographic dissimilarity between police chief executive law enforcement officers (CEOs) and subordinates is related to differences in perceptions of misconduct. Design/methodology/approach The data for this research are drawn from the National Police Research Platform. Multilevel mixed-effects regression modeling is used to analyze data from 78 randomly selected US police agencies (78 law enforcement CEOs and 10,709 officers from those agencies). Findings The main finding is that demographic dissimilarity between the CEO and subordinates is associated with differences in attitudes about police deviance, net of other factors. Practical implications The results exemplify the need to diversify police agencies at all levels, not just the lower ranks. Because employees were found to be more similar to those one step (up or down) from one another on the organizational hierarchy, diversifying at all levels of the police organizations will help to reduce the social distance between those in closer ranks, which could ameliorate the dissimilarity effect. Likewise, police agencies may need to adopt new management strategies to compensate for a diversifying workforce. Originality/value This study builds on previous research and investigates an understudied topic in the policing literature by assessing the extent to which dissimilarity is related to attitudinal congruence about workplace deviance in police organizations.

Organizational cynicism in policing: Examining the development and growth of cynicism among new police recruits

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to examine organizational cynicism (OC) among new police officers. Specifically, this paper investigates what factors are predictive of baseline levels of OC among police recruits and the growth of cynicism over time in these young officers. Design/methodology/approach The data for this study are drawn from Phase I of the National Police Research Platform. Latent growth curve modeling is used to analyze data on 760 police recruits across five geographically diverse training academies within three distinct time periods (first day of academy, just before graduation, and six months post-graduation) to assess the development of OC in new police officers. Findings Several variables, including gender, race, and relations in policing exerted significant effects on a baseline level of OC and on growth in cynicism over time. Practical implications OC is an important topic for police administrators. Cynicism among employees can lead to undesirable organizational outcomes such as low job morale and satisfaction. Thus, it is important for police administrators to better understand the development and growth of OC in its personnel, particularly in new police officers. Originality/value This study builds on previous research and investigates an understudied topic in the literature by assessing the development and growth of OC among new police officers.

Social bonds and police misconduct

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to examine the relationship between social control (adult social bonds) and police misconduct. Design/methodology/approach – Multiple regression methods are used to analyze survey data from a sample of 101 first-line police supervisors. A consequence-based measure is used to capture social bonds and workplace deviance is measured as the self-reported likelihood of future misconduct. Findings – Police supervisors reported varying likelihoods of future workplace deviance across four acts of misconduct. Social control was found to be negatively related to three of the four acts, which provides general support for the theory and study hypothesis. Practical implications – The results are discussed in terms of research and policy implications. Originality/value – Acknowledging important gaps in the literature, this study explores the validity of social control theory for explaining police misconduct.

The effects of body-worn cameras (BWCs) on police and citizen outcomes

The purpose of this paper is to review the extant of the published literature on body-worn cameras (BWCs) in policing, specifically in the context of how BWCs affect both citizens and officers.,The current study is a narrative review of the impact of BWCs on police and citizens generated through a search of four repositories (Google Scholar, Criminal Justice Abstracts, EBSCO Host, PsychInfo).,The current narrative review identified 21 articles that matched the selection criteria. In general, this body of research demonstrates that: the police are supportive of BWC adoption; the evidence from BWC evaluations suggests that the use of BWCs can have benefits for police-public encounters.,The practical implications derived from this narrative review suggest police administrators that the adoption and effective implementation of BWCs are one mechanism that can strengthen police-community relationships and decrease police misconduct through enhanced legitimacy and accountability.,This study is useful for researchers who wish to further examine BWC issues in policing, for police managers/administrators who are currently utilizing BWC technology, and for those who are considering adopting BWC technology.

The Police-Community Interaction Survey: measuring police performance in new ways

Purpose There is widespread interest in moving beyond crime statistics to measure police performance in new ways, especially the quality of police-community interactions that influence police legitimacy and public trust. The purpose of this paper is to introduce the Police-Community Interaction Survey (PCIS) developed by the National Police Research Platform. Design/methodology/approach The PCIS collected data from 53 police agencies around the USA in 2013-2014. The psychometric properties of the constructs measured are presented. This study also offers a preliminary test of the effects of an alternatively specified and expanded procedural justice model on willingness to cooperate with the police, mediated through perceptions of officer trustworthiness. Findings Scales were developed with good reliability and validity that measure various aspects of the police-community interactions. The authors find evidence that empathy is an important addition to the procedural justice model, and that the effects of procedural justice on willingness to cooperate with the police are partially mediated through perceptions of officer trustworthiness. Originality/value This is the first attempt to validate the measurement of police-community interactions on a large scale in the USA with policy implications at the local and national levels. The findings can help local police agencies incorporate new performance metrics at the individual, group, and agency levels. Nationally, the science of policing can be advanced by specifying the antecedents and consequences of respectful and empathic actions, including behavior that strengthens police-community relations.

The relationship between victim attitudes, training, and behaviors of sexual assault investigators

Abstract Literature on procedural justice suggests crime victims respond to the quality of treatment received by the police. Investigators who utilize interview techniques that align with tenets of procedural justice may have better overall interactions with victims and elicit better quality investigative information from victims, highlighting the importance of providing sexual assault specific training to police officers and investigators. One barrier to improving interactions are the perceptions police officers have of sexual assault victims. Research is mixed regarding whether training can influence these perceptions, or if training can only change behaviors. However, research regarding sexual assault specific training is limited, particularly for investigators. This study builds upon the current literature by exploring the influence of the receipt of and perceived helpfulness of procedural justice-based training on subsequent utilization of interview techniques that are consistent with the procedural justice perspective, and whether perceptions of victims mediate this relationship. This is tested using secondary analysis of self-report survey data from a sample of Illinois sexual assault investigators (N = 231) utilizing structural equation modeling. Results suggest that procedural justice-based training influences utilization of interview techniques, and that perceptions partially mediate this relationship. Theoretical and policy implications of these findings are discussed.

Applying Social Exchange Theory to Police Deviance: Exploring Self-Protective Behaviors Among Police Officers

Social exchange theory is one of the prominent paradigms used to explain the processes linking organizational treatment of employees to their job performance. However, the theoretical link between perceived organizational treatment and police deviance has not been fully explored. This research addresses this gap by analyzing the relationship between perceptions of organizational justice and the use of police self-protective behaviors (SPBs) using organizational support and organizational indifference as ad hoc indicators of the social exchange process. Data were collected using an online self-report survey distributed to police officers in a southern state who are members of a police officer association (n = 1,861). Consistent with previous social exchange research, the findings generally support the idea that fairness is related to SPBs, but largely to the extent that it enhances the social exchange in terms of increasing perceptions of organizational support and reducing perceptions of organizational indifference, which both directly affect an officer’s use of SPBs, and are a type of police deviance. Specific findings, relevant policy implications, and directions for future research are discussed.

A question of style: Replicating and extending Engel’s supervisory styles with new agencies and new measures

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to attempt to replicate Engel’s (2001) styles of supervision using data from a new sample and including additional independent variables. Design/methodology/approach The data were collected from a sample of police supervisors (N=369) at three distinct locations throughout the USA. Bivariate analyses and ordinary least squares regression were used to analyze the data. Findings The authors find three of Engel’s four supervisory styles and find largely consistent results, with the exception of gender. Further, the authors find strong evidence for persistent agency-level effects. Originality/value Supervisory styles are important to consider, especially when trying to effectively control the behavior of subordinates. While this study cannot address the impact of organizational differences, the consistent agency-level effects suggest this as something that should be considered again in future research.