Jonathan Freeman

Using Behavioral Realism to Estimate Presence: A Study of the Utility of Postural Responses to Motion Stimuli

We recently reported that direct subjective ratings of the sense of presence are potentially unstable and can be biased by previous judgments of the same stimuli (Freeman et al., 1999). Objective measures of the behavioral realism elicited by a display offer an alternative to subjective ratings. Behavioral measures and presence are linked by the premise that, when observers experience a mediated environment (VE or broadcast) that makes them feel present, they will respond to stimuli within the environment as they would to stimuli in the real world. The experiment presented here measured postural responses to a video sequence filmed from the hood of a car traversing a rally track, using stereoscopic and monoscopic presentation. Results demonstrated a positive effect of stereoscopic presentation on the magnitude of postural responses elicited. Posttest subjective ratings of presence, vection, and involvement were also higher for stereoscopically presented stimuli. The postural and subjective measures were not significantly correlated, indicating that nonproprioceptive postural responses are unlikely to provide accurate estimates of presence. Such postural responses may prove useful for the evaluation of displays for specific applications and in the corroboration of group subjective ratings of presence, but cannot be taken in place of subjective ratings.

Perceived depth and the feeling of presence in 3DTV

The present study investigates the subjective feeling of presence elicited by 3DTV and its relationship to perceived depth and image content. Subjective methods of assessing presence that have been used or proposed to date do not provide a measure of temporal variation. To overcome this limitation, we have applied the continuous assessment methodology (ITU-R, BT 500-7) to the assessment of presence, perceived depth and naturalness of depth. Twelve observers continuously rated their instantaneous perception of presence, depth and naturalness of depth when viewing stereoscopic footage. The results indicate that subjective presence ratings are subject to considerable temporal variation depending on the image content and camera techniques used. The correlations between the different attributes suggest that an increase in depth may lead to an enhanced sense of presence, provided depth is perceived as natural. A qualitative analysis of the data in relation to the image content provides evidence for the hypothesis that the extent of sensory information available to an observer is a determinant of presence, as proposed by T.B. Sheridan, Musings on telepresence and virtual presence, Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments 1 (1992) 120‐125. q 1998 Elsevier Science B.V.

Effects of Sensory Information and Prior Experience on Direct Subjective Ratings of Presence

We report three experiments using a new form of direct subjective presence evaluation that was developed from the method of continuous assessment used to assess television picture quality. Observers were required to provide a continuous rating of their sense of presence using a handheld slider. The first experiment investigated the effects of manipulating stereoscopic and motion parallax cues within video sequences presented on a 20 in. stereoscopic CRT display. The results showed that the presentation of both stereoscopic and motion parallax cues was associated with higher presence ratings. One possible interpretation of Experiment 1 is that CRT displays that contain the spatial cues of stereoscopic disparity and motion parallax are more interesting or engaging. To test this, observers in Experiment 2 rated the same stimuli first for interest and then for presence. The results showed that variations in interest did not predict the presence ratings obtained in Experiment 1. However, the subsequent ratings of presence differed significantly from those obtained in Experiment 1, suggesting that prior experience with interest ratings affected subsequent judgments of presence. To test this, Experiment 3 investigated the effects of prior experience on presence ratings. Three groups of observers rated a training sequence for interest, presence, and 3-Dness before rating the same stimuli as used for Experiments 1 and 2 for presence. The results demonstrated that prior ratings sensitize observers to different features of a display resulting in different presence ratings. The implications of these results for presence evaluation are discussed, and a combination of more-refined subjective measures and a battery of objective measures is recommended.

Presence: Where Are We?

179 IN 1978, THE PHILOSOPHER DANIEL DENNETT presented us with an interesting and entertaining thought experiment entitled “Where am I?” as the last chapter of his Brainstorms book.1 Dennett recounts the story of a “curious episode” in his life where his brain got surgically separated from his body, with each connection between them restored by placing two “microminiaturized radio transceivers” between each input and output pathway. After the operation he, or rather his body, goes to visit his brain, which was placed, in keeping with the best philosophical traditions, in a lifesupport vat. While looking with his own eyes at his own brain he starts to wonder:

Do problematic and non-problematic video game players differ in extraversion, trait empathy, social capital and prosocial tendencies?

The increasing popularity of online and multiplayer games has meant that for many, social interaction and cooperation are vital components of the gaming experience. Previous research has suggested that not only has this made gaming more attractive to socially oriented people but also that it may be socially beneficial in terms of social capital and prosocial behaviors. However, for problematic video game players (those showing signs of compulsive or detrimental video game use), this may not be the case, and a number of theories hold deficiencies in socializing in real life as central to the development of this issue. In the present study, an online questionnaire completed by 416 participants assessed problematic video game use, extraversion, trait empathy, online and offline social capital and prosocial tendencies. Contrary to hypotheses, non-problematic, problematic and non-gamers did not differ in empathy, extraversion or prosocial tendencies. Problematic video game play was, however, associated with significantly higher online social capital and lower offline social capital whereas non-problematic players demonstrated only higher online capital than non-players. This highlights the importance of social support but suggests personality is not an influential factor.

Symbiotic Interaction: A Critical Definition and Comparison to other Human-Computer Paradigms

We propose a definition of symbiotic interaction that is informed by current developments in computing. We clearly distinguish this definition from previous ones and from selected paradigms that address the human-computer relationship. The definition is also informed by a variety of human-centered frameworks in human-computer interaction, including embodied interactions, situationist frameworks, and participatory and work-oriented design perspectives. Symbiotic interactions can be achieved by combining computation, sensing technology, and interaction design to realize deep perception, awareness, and understanding between humans and computers. Important aspects to implement are transparency, reciprocity, and collaborative use of resources for both computers and humans. The symbiotic relationship is also characterized by goals and agency independence of humans and computers. The definition sets the premise to discuss in a critical way future research agendas for symbiotic interactions that are sensitive to human-centered values.

Toward a Core Bibliography of Presence

ACORE LITERATURE Is a set of published written works that are considered “essential,” “significant,” “of lasting importance,” or “of permanent value” to an area of study. It is assumed that although each scholar has specific and often unique interests within a topic area and therefore considers many written works concerning those interests to be “fundamental,” most members of an area of scholarly study will share a foundational knowledge, and that this knowledge will be represented in certain more commonly respected written works in the area. These works constitute a core literature. Researchers have attempted to construct lists and compilations of core literatures in fields and subfields including psychology,1 sports psychology,2 psychology of perception,3 psychiatry,4 organization development,5 famology (the study of families),6 family dynamics of addiction,7 American literature,8,9 law,10,11 econometrics,12 and agricultural sciences.13 Many of these efforts have been motivated by a desire to provide a resource for students, teachers, and others. For students, such compilations represent an introduction to the historical development and current focus of their field. Works in a core literature can also help illustrate to students the characteristics of valuable work in their field and insight into the characteristics of valued scholarship in the area. Awareness that they have read or reviewed works in a core literature might also reassure them that they are prepared to enter the field as scholars and teachers. Teachers can utilize core literatures as they develop curricula and reading lists (e.g., a personal review of core literature in law by Day11 was prompted by the desire to develop a course on legal “classics”). Gorenflo1 suggests that core literature reference lists can also help editors of introductory textbooks ensure representativeness, and researchers, publishers, and librarians are likely to benefit in a variety of ways from the identification of core literatures. While pedagogy has motivated many studies of core literatures, others have been designed to identify the direction in which a field is moving,11 review key work during a particularly important era,13 identify areas within disciplines,5 and assess the disciplinary status of topic areas.6 The following bibliography constitutes a draft version of a core literature in the field of presence research and we hope it will serve many of the goals described above. The bibliography is divided into two main categories, books and papers. While this bibliography is selective, given the massive amount of literature available on presence and its related technologies (virtual reality, cinema, telerobotics, etc.), more comprehensive bibliographies are also available and for these we direct the reader to two online resources that have the specific goal of providing information to people working in the area of presence research:

Cinematic language and the description of film: keeping AD users in the frame

Abstract Audio Description has increasingly been the focus of academic analysis. This paper responds to the call for more reception studies. It discusses the results of empirical research comparing the responses of blind, partially sighted and sighted participants to two styles of description for David Leans 1945 classic film Brief Encounter: a ‘standard’ AD style that conforms to current Ofcom guidelines and a ‘cinematic’ style that contravenes the guidelines by incorporating description of the camera work and editing. This visual code, which is part of the language of film, has been assumed to be inaccessible to AD users. The results suggest otherwise, with the majority of blind and partially sighted participants responding positively to the use of cinematic terminology. The diversity of description needs arising from the sight characteristics of the target audience is discussed, as are the resulting implications. The findings suggest the debate surrounding description of film should be informed by the responses of blind and partially sighted people, keeping AD users ‘in the frame’.

Immersive FPS games: user experience and performance

Computer games are ideally placed to form the content of future Immersive Media, but this prospect is faced with both technical and usability issues. This paper describes an experiment in immersive gaming using a state-of-the-art computer First Person Shooter (FPS) game, in which we analyze user experience and performance through a combination of in-game metrics, questionnaires and subjective reports. We describe the evaluation of a major commercial computer game as a real-time immersive stereoscopic experience based on a four-screen CAVE-like installation. The implementation is based on a bespoke VR middleware developed on top of the games own engine. Our results show an overwhelming subjective preference for the immersive version despite a decrease in performance attributed to a more realistic aiming mechanism. More importantly, metrics suggest that users took advantage of the immersive context rather than simply transposing their desktop gaming skills.

Immersed in Media: Telepresence Theory, Measurement & Technology

Throughout the last decades, research has generated a substantial body of theory about Spatial Presence experiences. This chapter reviews some of the most important existing theoretical explications. First, building on notions offered in literature, the core of the construct will be explicated: What exactly is meant by the term “Spatial Presence”? Second, theoretical views on the “feeling of being there” provided by different Presence researchers are introduced. Important aspects and determinants of Spatial Presence have been highlighted in the past, such as attentional processes and embodied cognition. However, coherent theoretical frameworks are rare and more empirical research seems necessary to advance the theoretical understanding of Spatial Presence. The chapter concludes with an overview about recent controversies and future trends in Spatial Presence research.Highlights key research currently being undertaken within the field of telepresence, providing the most detailed account of the field to date, advancing our understanding of a fundamental property of all media - the illusion of presence; the sense of being there inside a virtual environment, with actual or virtual others. This collection has been put together by leading international scholars from America, Europe, and Asia. Together, they describe the state-of-the-art in presence theory, research and technology design for an advanced academic audience. Immersed in Media provides research that can help designers optimize presence for users of advanced media technologies such as virtual and augmented reality, collaborative social media, robotics, and artificial intelligence and lead us to better understand human cognition, emotion and behaviour.