Jonathan Freeston

Throwing velocity and accuracy in elite and sub-elite cricket players: A descriptive study

Abstract Release velocity and accuracy are vital components of throwing performance. However, there is no published research on these parameters for throwing in cricket. In this study, we investigated the throwing performance of 110 cricket players from six different populations: elite senior males, elite under-19 junior males, elite under-17 junior males, elite senior females, elite under-19 junior females, and sub-elite senior males. Based on a specifically designed cricket throwing test, participants were assessed for (1) maximal throwing velocity and (2) throwing accuracy at maximal velocity and at three sub-maximal velocities. Elite senior males exhibited the highest peak and mean maximal throwing velocities (P≤0.001). Furthermore, the groups of males had significantly higher peak and mean maximal throwing velocities than the groups of females (P≤0.01). A speed–accuracy trade-off existed such that all groups demonstrated improved accuracy scores at velocities between 75% and 85% maximal throwing velocity compared with 50% maximal throwing velocity and 100% perceived maximal exertion. The results indicate that sex, training experience (years training), and training volume (training time per week) may contribute to throwing performance in cricket players. Further research should focus on understanding the mechanisms behind the observed differences between these groups. This is the first study to describe the inherent throwing profiles of different cricket playing populations. Potentially, we have identified stimulus material for future training developments.

The Efficacy of Injury Prevention Programs in Adolescent Team Sports A Meta-analysis

Background: Intensive sport participation in childhood and adolescence is an established cause of acute and overuse injury. Interventions and programs designed to prevent such injuries are important in reducing individual and societal costs associated with treatment and recovery. Likewise, they help to maintain the accrual of positive outcomes from participation, such as cardiovascular health and skill development. To date, several studies have individually tested the effectiveness of injury prevention programs (IPPs). Purpose: To determine the overall efficacy of structured multifaceted IPPs containing a combination of warm-up, neuromuscular strength, or proprioception training, targeting injury reduction rates according to risk exposure time in adolescent team sport contexts. Study Design: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Methods: With established inclusion criteria, studies were searched in the following databases: Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, MEDLINE, SPORTDiscus, Web of Science, EMBASE, CINAHL, and AusSportMed. The keyword search terms (including derivations) included the following: adolescents, sports, athletic injuries, prevention/warm-up programs. Eligible studies were then pooled for meta-analysis with an invariance random-effects model, with injury rate ratio (IRR) as the primary outcome. Heterogeneity among studies and publication bias were tested, and subgroup analysis examined heterogeneity sources. Results: Across 10 studies, including 9 randomized controlled trials, a pooled overall point estimate yielded an IRR of 0.60 (95% CI = 0.48-0.75; a 40% reduction) while accounting for hours of risk exposure. Publication bias assessment suggested an 8% reduction in the estimate (IRR = 0.68, 95% CI = 0.54-0.84), and the prediction interval intimated that any study estimate could still fall between 0.33 and 1.48. Subgroup analyses identified no significant moderators, although possible influences may have been masked because of data constraints. Conclusion: Compared with normative practices or control, IPPs significantly reduced IRRs in adolescent team sport contexts. The underlying explanations for IPP efficacy remain to be accurately identified, although they potentially relate to IPP content and improvements in muscular strength, proprioceptive balance, and flexibility. Clinical Relevance: Clinical practitioners (eg, orthopaedics, physical therapists) and sports practitioners (eg, strength and conditioners, coaches) can respectively recommend and implement IPPs similar to those examined to help reduce injury rates in adolescent team sports contexts.

Progressive velocity throwing training increases velocity without detriment to accuracy in sub-elite cricket players: A randomized controlled trial

Abstract Throwing performance is vital within the sport of cricket. However, little published evidence exists regarding methods to improve throwing velocity and/or accuracy in any cricket-playing population. This study, therefore, assessed the efficacy of progressive velocity throwing training on throwing velocity and accuracy in a cricket-specific test. Eighteen sub-elite male cricket players were assessed for maximal throwing velocity and throwing accuracy at four different throwing velocities relative to maximal throwing velocity. The participants were randomly assigned to either an intervention (n=9) or control (n=9) group. Both groups performed usual pre-season activities for 8 weeks, during which the intervention group performed two additional specific throwing training sessions per week. Maximal throwing velocity was re-assessed at 4 weeks and the progressive velocity throwing programme was adjusted accordingly. The 8-week progressive velocity throwing training significantly increased peak and mean maximal throwing velocity (P = 0.01). Absolute changes in peak and mean maximal throwing velocity were negatively and significantly correlated with initial maximal throwing velocity at 4 weeks (r=−0.805, P = 0.01 and r=−0.806, P = 0.01 respectively) but not at 8 weeks. No significant difference was observed in accuracy for either group at any time. This is the first published study to describe the effectiveness of a progressive velocity throwing training programme on throwing performance in a group of sub-elite cricket players. The addition of two specific throwing training sessions per week can increase maximal throwing velocity without detriment to throwing accuracy.

Throwing speed and accuracy in baseball and cricket players.

Throwing speed and accuracy are both critical to sports performance but cannot be optimized simultaneously. This speed-accuracy trade-off (SATO) is evident across a number of throwing groups but remains poorly understood. The goal was to describe the SATO in baseball and cricket players and determine the speed that optimizes accuracy. 20 grade-level baseball and cricket players performed 10 throws at 80% and 100% of maximal throwing speed (MTS) toward a cricket stump. Baseball players then performed a further 10 throws at 70%, 80%, 90%, and 100% of MTS toward a circular target. Baseball players threw faster with greater accuracy than cricket players at both speeds. Both groups demonstrated a significant SATO as vertical error increased with increases in speed; the trade-off was worse for cricketers than baseball players. Accuracy was optimized at 70% of MTS for baseballers. Throwing athletes should decrease speed when accuracy is critical. Cricket players could adopt baseball-training practices to improve throwing performance.

Does Strength-Promoting Exercise Confer Unique Health Benefits? A Pooled Analysis of Data on 11 Population Cohorts With All-Cause, Cancer, and Cardiovascular Mortality Endpoints

Abstract Public health guidance includes recommendations to engage in strength‐promoting exercise (SPE), but there is little evidence on its links with mortality. Using data from the Health Survey for England and the Scottish Health Survey from 1994‐2008, we examined the associations between SPE (gym‐based and own‐body‐weight strength activities) and all‐cause, cancer, and cardiovascular disease mortality. Multivariable‐adjusted Cox regression was used to examine the associations between SPE (any, low‐/high‐volume, and adherence to the SPE guideline (≥2 sessions/week)) and mortality. The core sample comprised 80,306 adults aged ≥30 years, corresponding to 5,763 any‐cause deaths (736,463 person‐years). Following exclusions for prevalent disease/events occurring in the first 24 months, participation in any SPE was favorably associated with all‐cause (hazard ratio (HR) = 0.77, 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.69, 0.87) and cancer (HR = 0.69, 95% CI: 0.56, 0.86) mortality. Adhering only to the SPE guideline was associated with all‐cause (HR = 0.79, 95% CI: 0.66, 0.94) and cancer (HR = 0.66, 95% CI: 0.48, 0.92) mortality; adhering only to the aerobic activity guideline (equivalent to 150 minutes/week of moderate‐intensity activity) was associated with all‐cause (HR = 0.84, 95% CI: 0.78, 0.90) and cardiovascular disease (HR = 0.78, 95% CI: 0.68, 0.90) mortality. Adherence to both guidelines was associated with all‐cause (HR = 0.71, 95% CI: 0.57, 0.87) and cancer (HR = 0.70, 95% CI: 0.50, 0.98) mortality. Our results support promoting adherence to the strength exercise guidelines over and above the generic physical activity targets.

Position-Specific Anthropometry and Throwing Velocity of Elite Female Water Polo Players

Abstract Martínez, JG, Vila, MH, Ferragut, C, Noguera, MM, Abraldes, JA, Rodríguez, N, Freeston, J, and Alcaraz, PE. Position-specific anthropometry and throwing velocity of elite female water polo players. J Strength Cond Res 29(2): 472–477, 2015—This study was conducted with the following aims: (a) to describe the effect of playing position on anthropometrics and throwing velocity in elite female water polo players and (b) to observe any relationships between anthropometric parameters and throwing velocity. To achieve these aims, we analyzed a total of 46 female elite players (age: 22.5 ± 5.1 years; height: 172.0 ± 6.9 cm, body mass: 67.4 ± 7.5 kg) members of the top 4 teams of the Spanish Honour Division women league (21 offensive wings players, 17 center, and 8 goalkeepers). Wings were significantly shorter and had smaller arm spans than goalkeepers and center players. Goalkeepers demonstrated longer forearm lengths than wing and center players. No other significant differences were evident between positions in terms of anthropometric, strength, or throwing velocity variables The somatotype of the offensive wing players was mesomorphic, whereas centers were endomorph (classified as endomesomorphic). Height, arm span, muscular mass, biepicondylar breadth of the humerus, arm girth (relaxed and tensed), and forearm girth were related to throwing velocity. In conclusion, only a small number of anthropometric differences exist between players of different positions in elite female water polo. Shorter players with smaller arm spans may be better suited to the wings, whereas athletes with longer forearms may be better suited to the goalkeeper position. Taller, more muscular athletes with wider arm spans, broader humeri, and wider arms (relaxed and flexed) tended to throw with increased velocity. Trainers should focus on increasing the modifiable characteristics (muscle mass and arm girths) that contribute to throwing velocity in this population.

Indicators of throwing arm fatigue in elite adolescent male baseball players: a randomized crossover trial.

Abstract Freeston, J, Adams, R, Ferdinands, RED, and Rooney, K. Indicators of throwing arm fatigue in elite adolescent male baseball players: A randomized crossover trial. J Strength Cond Res 28(8): 2115–2120, 2014—Throwing carries an inherent risk of injury that worsens in the presence of arm fatigue. The purpose of this study was to identify markers that could facilitate the early detection of this type of fatigue, by comparing the response to bouts of throwing-specific and running-based exercise. Thirteen elite junior male baseball players were tested twice, 7 days apart with a randomized crossover design. They were assessed for shoulder proprioception, maximal throwing velocity, and throwing accuracy before and after a 10-minute bout of either throwing-specific (THROW) or general (RUN) exercise. Maximal throwing velocity was reduced similarly after both THROW and RUN bouts (−1.0 ± 0.4 vs. −0.6 ± 0.2 m·s−1, respectively; p ⩽ 0.05); however, accuracy was only reduced after THROW (7.6 ± 3.4 cm; p ⩽ 0.05). Arm soreness increased significantly more after THROW than RUN (3.5 ± 0.7 vs. 1.4 ± 0.5 km·h−1, respectively; p ⩽ 0.05). Shoulder proprioception did not change after either exercise bout. The results suggest that throwing velocity is an indicator of general fatigue, whereas throwing accuracy and arm soreness are markers of arm fatigue. Shoulder proprioception does not seem to be a sensitive marker of either type of fatigue. Throwing velocity should be monitored to gauge overall fatigue levels, whereas accuracy and arm soreness should be closely monitored to gauge arm fatigue and throwing-induced injury risk.

The effect of progressive resistance training on aerobic fitness and strength in adults with coronary heart disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials:

Design We aimed to evaluate the effect of progressive resistance training on cardiorespiratory fitness and muscular strength in coronary heart disease, when compared to control or aerobic training, and when combined with aerobic training. Secondary aims were to evaluate the safety and efficacy of progressive resistance training on other physiological and clinical outcomes. Methods and results Electronic databases were searched from inception until July 2016. Designs included progressive resistance training vs control, progressive resistance training vs aerobic training, and combined training vs aerobic training. From 268,778 titles, 34 studies were included (1940 participants; 71.9% male; age 60 ± 7 years). Progressive resistance training was more effective than control for lower (standardized mean difference 0.57, 95% confidence interval (0.17–0.96)) and upper (1.43 (0.73–2.13)) body strength. Aerobic fitness improved similarly after progressive resistance training (16.9%) or aerobic training (21.0%); (standardized mean difference –0.13, 95% confidence interval (–0.35–0.08)). Combined training was more effective than aerobic training for aerobic fitness (0.21 (0.09–0.34), lower (0.62 (0.32–0.92)) and upper (0.51 (0.27–0.74)) body strength. Twenty studies reported adverse event information, with five reporting 64 cardiovascular complications, 63 during aerobic training. Conclusion Isolated progressive resistance training resulted in an increase in lower and upper body strength, and improved aerobic fitness to a similar degree as aerobic training in coronary heart disease cohorts. Importantly, when progressive resistance training was added to aerobic training, effects on both fitness and strength were enhanced compared to aerobic training alone. Reporting of adverse events was poor, and clinical gaps were identified for women, older adults, high intensity progressive resistance training and long-term outcomes, warranting future trials to confirm safety and effectiveness.

Strength and Power Correlates of Throwing Velocity on Subelite Male Cricket Players.

Abstract Freeston, JL, Carter, T, Whitaker, G, Nicholls, O, and Rooney, KB. Strength and power correlates of throwing velocity on subelite male cricket players. J Strength Cond Res 30(6): 1646–1651, 2016—Throwing velocity is an important aspect of fielding in cricket to affect run-outs and reduce the opponents run-scoring opportunities. Although a relationship between strength and/or power and throwing velocity has been well established in baseball, water polo, and European handball, it has not been adequately explored in cricket. Consequently, this study aimed to determine the relationship between measures of strength and/or power and throwing velocity in cricket players. Seventeen male cricket players (mean ± SD; age, 21.1 ± 1.6 years; height, 1.79 ± 0.06 m; weight, 79.8 ± 6.4 kg) from an elite athlete program were tested for maximal throwing velocity from the stretch position and after a 3-meter shuffle. They were also assessed for strength and power using a range of different measures. Throwing velocity from the stretch position (30.5 ± 2.4 m·s−1) was significantly related to dominant leg lateral-to-medial jump (LMJ) distance (r = 0.71; p < 0.01), dominant shoulder internal rotation (IR) strength (r = 0.55; p ⩽ 0.05), and dominant (r = 0.73; p < 0.01) and nondominant (r = 0.54; p ⩽ 0.05) medicine ball rotation (MB Rot) throw velocity and medicine ball chest pass (MB CP) distance (r = 0.67; p < 0.01). A nonsignificant trend was observed for vertical jump (VJ) height (p = 0.06), whereas no significant relationships were observed for nondominant LMJ distance (p = 0.97), nondominant shoulder IR strength (p = 0.80), 1 repetition maximum (RM) squat strength (p = 0.57), 1RM bench press strength (p = 0.90), height (p = 0.33), or weight (p = 0.29). Multiple regression analysis revealed that dominant MB Rot and MB CP explained 66% of the variance. The results were similar for velocity after a shuffle step (31.8 ± 2.1 m·s−1); however, VJ height reached statistical significance (r = 0.51; p ⩽ 0.05). The multiple regression was also similar with MB Rot and MB CP explaining 70% of the variance. The cricketers in this study threw with greater velocity than elite junior and subelite senior cricketers but with lower velocities than elite senior cricketers and collegiate level and professional baseball players. This is the first study to demonstrate a link between strength and/or power and throwing velocity in cricket players and highlight the importance of power development as it relates to throwing velocity. Exercises that more closely simulated the speed (body weight jumps and medicine ball throws) or movement pattern (shoulder IR) of overhead throwing were greater predictors of throwing velocity. Strength and conditioning staff should assess and develop power to enhance throwing performance in cricket players. Exercises with greater movement and speed specificity to throwing should be used in preference over exercises that are slower and have less movement specificity to the throwing motion. Cricket players should engage in power training to bridge the gap in performance between them and baseball players.

Shoulder proprioception is not related to throwing speed or accuracy in elite adolescent male baseball players.

Abstract Freeston, J, Adams, RD, and Kieron, R. Shoulder proprioception is not related to throwing speed or accuracy in elite adolescent male baseball players. J Strength Cond Res 29(1): 181–187, 2015—Understanding factors that influence throwing speed and accuracy is critical to performance in baseball. Shoulder proprioception has been implicated in the injury risk of throwing athletes, but no such link has been established with performance outcomes. The purpose of this study was to describe any relationship between shoulder proprioception acuity and throwing speed or accuracy. Twenty healthy elite adolescent male baseball players (age, 19.6 ± 2.6 years), who had represented the state of New South Wales in the past 18 months, were assessed for bilateral active shoulder proprioception (shoulder rotation in 90° of arm abduction moving toward external rotation using the active movement extent discrimination apparatus), maximal throwing speed (MTS, meters per second measured via a radar gun), and accuracy (total error in centimeters determined by video analysis) at 80 and 100% of MTS. Although proprioception in the dominant and nondominant arms was significantly correlated with each other (r = 0.54, p < 0.01), no relationship was found between shoulder proprioception and performance. Shoulder proprioception was not a significant determinant of throwing performance such that high levels of speed and accuracy were achieved without a high degree of proprioception. There is no evidence to suggest therefore that this particular method of shoulder proprioception measurement should be implemented in clinical practice. Consequently, clinicians are encouraged to consider proprioception throughout the entire kinetic chain rather than the shoulder joint in isolation as a determining factor of performance in throwing athletes.