Jonathan L. Helm

Distinguishing ordinal and disordinal interactions.

Re-parameterized regression models may enable tests of crucial theoretical predictions involving interactive effects of predictors that cannot be tested directly using standard approaches. First, we present a re-parameterized regression model for the Linear × Linear interaction of 2 quantitative predictors that yields point and interval estimates of 1 key parameter-the crossover point of predicted values-and leaves certain other parameters unchanged. We explain how resulting parameter estimates provide direct evidence for distinguishing ordinal from disordinal interactions. We generalize the re-parameterized model to Linear × Qualitative interactions, where the qualitative variable may have 2 or 3 categories, and then describe how to modify the re-parameterized model to test moderating effects. To illustrate our new approach, we fit alternate models to social skills data on 438 participants in the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Study of Early Child Care. The re-parameterized regression model had point and interval estimates of the crossover point that fell near the mean on the continuous environment measure. The disordinal form of the interaction supported 1 theoretical model-differential-susceptibility-over a competing model that predicted an ordinal interaction.

Assessing cross-partner associations in physiological responses via coupled oscillator models.

A host of theoretical frameworks suggest associations of physiological signals between two individuals within a romantic relationship. However, few studies have provided empirical evidence of such associations using physiological reactivity from both partners in the dyad. In this study we use measures of respiration and heart rate from romantic partners recorded across three laboratory tasks. We examine the interrelations of each measure between both dyad members using coupled linear oscillators (Boker & Nesselroade, 2002). These models were used to capture oscillations in respiration and heart rate, and to examine interdependence in the physiological signals between both partners. Results show that associations were detectable within all three tasks, with different patterns of coupling within each task. Discussion centers on ways to investigate the synchrony of physiological responses across within relationships, including the promises of and obstacles for doing so.

Are Executive Functioning Deficits Concurrently and Predictively Associated with Depressive and Anxiety Symptoms in Adolescents

The central objective of the current study was to evaluate how executive functions (EF), and specifically cognitive flexibility, were concurrently and predictively associated with anxiety and depressive symptoms in adolescence. Adolescents (N = 220) and their parents participated in this longitudinal investigation. Adolescents’ EF was assessed by the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST) during the initial assessment, and symptoms of depressive and anxiety disorders were reported by mothers and youths concurrently and 2 years later. Correlational analyses suggested that youths who made more total errors (TE), including both perseverative errors (PE) and nonperseverative errors (NPE), concurrently exhibited significantly more depressive symptoms. Adolescents who made more TE and those who made more NPE tended to have more anxiety symptoms 2 years later. Structural equation modeling analyses accounting for key explanatory variables (e.g., IQ, disruptive behavior disorders, and attention deficit hyperactive disorder) showed that TE was concurrently associated with parent reports of adolescent depressive symptoms. The results suggest internalizing psychopathology is associated with global (TE) and nonspecific (NPE) EF difficulties but not robustly associated with cognitive inflexibility (PE). Future research with the WCST should consider different sources of errors that are posited to reflect divergent underlying neural mechanisms, conferring differential vulnerability for emerging mental health problems.

Differential susceptibility to effects of maternal sensitivity? A study of candidate plasticity genes

Here we tested whether there was genetic moderation of effects of early maternal sensitivity on social-emotional and cognitive-linguistic development from early childhood onward and whether any detected Gene × Environment interaction effects proved consistent with differential-susceptibility or diathesis-stress models of Person × Environment interaction (N = 695). Two new approaches for evaluating models were employed with 12 candidate genes. Whereas maternal sensitivity proved to be a consistent predictor of child functioning across the primary-school years, candidate genes did not show many main effects, nor did they tend to interact with maternal sensitivity/insensitivity. These findings suggest that the developmental benefits of early sensitive mothering and the costs of insensitive mothering look more similar than different across genetically different children in the current sample. Although acknowledgement of this result is important, it is equally important that the generally null Gene × Environment results reported here not be overgeneralized to other samples, other predictors, other outcomes, and other candidate genes.

Minority Stress Predicts Depression in Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Emerging Adults via Elevated Diurnal Cortisol

Lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) individuals report higher levels of stressful interpersonal conflicts with others because of their divergence from heterosexual social norms. In a biopsychosocial model of minority stress, we tested diurnal cortisol slopes and internalized homonegativity (IH) as two potential mechanisms linking experiences of LGB-related stress to depression. The sample consisted of 27 lesbian and bisexual young women and 35 gay and bisexual young men (N = 62; age, 17–27, M = 21.34 years) from the greater metropolitan area of Montréal, Québec. We predicted that (a) LGB-related stress, IH, and diurnal cortisol slopes would be positively associated with each other and with depression; and (b) flatter diurnal cortisol slopes and/or greater IH would mediate the link between LGB-related stress and depression. LGB-related stress, diurnal cortisol slopes, and IH were positively associated with depression, and mediation analyses showed that diurnal cortisol slopes mediated the link between LGB-related stress and depression. These findings suggest that external stressors associated with being LGB can impact individuals’ physiological coping resources, thus affecting their psychological health.

Evaluation of a Bayesian Approach to Estimating Nonlinear Mixed-Effects Mixture Models

The growth mixture model has become increasingly popular, given the willingness to acknowledge developmental heterogeneity in populations. Typically, linear growth mixture models, based on polynomials or piecewise functions, are used in substantive applications and evaluated quantitatively through simulation. Growth mixture models that follow inherently nonlinear trajectories, referred to as nonlinear mixed-effects mixture models, have received comparatively little attention—likely due to estimation complexity. Previous work on the estimation of these models has involved multistep routines (Kelley, 2008), maximum likelihood estimation (MLE) via the E-M algorithm (Harring, 2005, 2012), Taylor series expansion and MLE within the structural equation modeling framework (Grimm, Ram, & Estabrook, 2010), and MLE by adaptive Gauss–Hermite quadrature (Codd & Cudeck, 2014). This article proposes and evaluates the use of Bayesian estimation with OpenBUGS (Lunn, Spiegelhalter, Thomas, & Best, 2009), a free program, and compares its performance with the Taylor series expansion approach. Finally, these estimation routines are used to evaluate the need for multiple latent classes to account for between-child differences in the development of reading ability.

Bayesian Versus Maximum Likelihood Estimation of Multitrait–Multimethod Confirmatory Factor Models

This article compares maximum likelihood and Bayesian estimation of the correlated trait–correlated method (CT–CM) confirmatory factor model for multitrait–multimethod (MTMM) data. In particular, Bayesian estimation with minimally informative prior distributions—that is, prior distributions that prescribe equal probability across the known mathematical range of a parameter—are investigated as a source of information to aid convergence. Results from a simulation study indicate that Bayesian estimation with minimally informative priors produces admissible solutions more often maximum likelihood estimation (100.00% for Bayesian estimation, 49.82% for maximum likelihood). Extra convergence does not come at the cost of parameter accuracy; Bayesian parameter estimates showed comparable bias and better efficiency compared to maximum likelihood estimates. The results are echoed via 2 empirical examples. Hence, Bayesian estimation with minimally informative priors outperforms enables admissible solutions of the CT–CM model for MTMM data.

Behavior and emotion modulation deficits in preschoolers at risk for bipolar disorder.

Bipolar disorder (BD) is highly familial, but studies have yet to examine preschoolers at risk for BD using standardized, developmentally appropriate clinical assessment tools. We used such methods to test whether preschoolers at familial risk for BD have more observed difficulty modulating emotions and behaviors than do low‐risk preschoolers. Identification of emotional and behavioral difficulties in at‐risk preschoolers is crucial for developing new approaches for early intervention and prevention of BD.

Modeling Self-Regulation as a Process Usinga Multiple Time-Scale Multiphase Latent Basis Growth Model

Measurement burst designs, wherein individuals are measured intensively during multiple periods (i.e., bursts), have created new opportunities for studying change at multiple time scales. This article develops a model that might be useful in situations where the functional form of short-term change is unknown, might consist of multiple phases, and might change over the long term. Specifically, we combine measurement of intraindividual entropy, a latent basis growth model, a multiphase growth model, and a growth model with covariates into a unified framework that could help accommodate the complexity of patterns that emerge in multiple time-scale categorical data streams. Empirical data from a longitudinal study of young children’s behavior during laboratory tasks designed to induce frustration are used to illustrate the utility of the proposed model for simultaneously describing intratask (short-term) change in self-regulation and developmental (long-term) shifts in intratask change.

The buffering effect of peer support on the links between family rejection and psychosocial adjustment in LGB emerging adults

Lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) emerging adults often seek support from their peers if they lack support from their family of origin. We predicted that peer social support would moderate the link between negative family relationships and psychosocial adjustment, such that in the context of family rejection, experiencing more peer support would predict lower levels of anxiety, depression, and internalized homonegativity (IH) and higher self-esteem. Sixty-two (27 females) LGB individuals (ages 17–27, M = 21.34 years, SD = 2.65) reported on their families’ attitudes toward homosexuality, experiences of family victimization, peer social support, anxiety and depression symptoms, IH, and self-esteem. Results showed that peer social support moderated the link between negative family attitudes and anxiety and also moderated the link between family victimization and depression. The moderating effects suggest that having a supportive peer group may protect against mental health problems for LGB emerging adults who lack support from their family of origin.