Jonathan Lyon

Community conservation: practitioners’ answer to critics

Based on ethical, theoretical and practical concerns, community-based conservation projects have developed over the past 2 decades as alternatives to traditional protected areas. Recent criticisms of such programmes by biologists and social scientists involve a debate on who should manage our natural resources. Such criticisms have focused on large integrated conservation and development projects (ICDPs) and have largely ignored the successes of small community conservation projects. Practitioners of ICDPs have also been disappointed with the results of their projects and are seeking answers from ICDP failures. Two important differences separate community conservation projects and ICDPs and have led to the success of the smaller projects: (1) community conservation projects see local rural people as the solution to habitat degradation whereas ICDPs see them as the problem, (2) the scale of the smaller projects is at the community level but can use the same methods regionally, whereas ICDPs are large in scale and cost. We discuss, from a practitioner’s viewpoint, the strengths that contribute to the successes of community conservation projects, including actually functioning at the community level, creating an empowered community group to carry on the social sustainability of the project, continuous basic level funding, and the importance of monitoring.

Structure of herbaceous plant assemblages in a forested riparian landscape

We assessed patterns of herbaceous and woody species richness, plant-environment interactions, and correspondence between the herb and tree layer in a riparian landscape (the Ozark National Scenic Riverways, Missouri, USA). A total of 269 herb and 70 tree species were identified on 94 sample plots. Gradient analysis revealed that environmental variables and vegetation were influenced by a strong elevation gradient. However, high variability in environmental variables (pH, elevation, slope, sand, clay, organic matter) indicated a high level of substrate heterogeneity across the riparian landscape. We were unable to predict the composition of the herb understory from the canopy trees with any detailed accuracy and no clear characterization of herb species assemblages was found using cluster analysis or ecological land type (ELT) classifications. Canonical correspondence analysis (CCA) results for both tree and herb plots showed that elevation (height above river) and pH were the dominant environmental gradients influencing vegetation patterns on the first CCA axis while soil particle size exhibited the strongest correlation with the second CCA axis. Secondary gradients of importance included slope, soil container capacity, and organic matter. No significant linear or quadratic correlation was found between elevation and herb or woody species richness. Environmental variables alone or in combination, were weak predictors of herb and woody species richness, despite the patterns observed in the gradient analysis and the correlations observed in the CCA results. Ecotonal analysis showed that the herb layer exhibited a high species replacement rate at the lower elevations most susceptible to flooding (0–3 m). Above the flooding zone, there was more or less continuous species replacement, suggesting the presence of a gradual ecotone/ecocline. The tree layer exhibited much stronger discontinuities than the herb layer in the lower elevations along the height gradient (0–10 m). Recognizing the limitations of classification techniques for riparian herb assemblages and the importance of scale and heterogeneity in vegetation layers is especially important in light of mandates to preserve, protect, and manage for plant diversity.

Gradient analysis in a riparian landscape: contrasts among forest layers

Abstract We used standard vegetation sampling techniques to characterize species associations in a riparian forest of the Buffalo National River, Arkansas, USA. Species associations were influenced by environmental gradients dominated by pH and elevation, but secondary gradients differed among forest layers. Distinct groups of sampling plots within each vegetation layer were strongly supported, but the number and composition of the clusters did not correspond well among forest layers. The independence of forest layers may be promoted by response to different patterns of environmental factors operating at different levels in the forest. Traditional methods of plant community ecology rely on the dominance of overstory trees to define species associations and establish plant community boundaries, however species associations in the overstory are not necessarily good predictors of understory associations. Ecosystem management relies on accurately identifying components of the forest landscape, but traditional use of canopy dominants as community indicators may be inaccurate and imprecise for the majority of forest species.

Correspondence analysis of functional groups in a riparian landscape

We used multivariate analysis and ordinations to characterize thecomposition and distribution of woody vegetation within the Ozark NationalScenic Riverways (ONSR), Missouri, USA. The objectives of the study were to: 1)evaluate patterns of woody species distributions along existing environmentalgradients; 2) determine if different classes of woody plants (i.e., dominantoverstory trees, all trees, understory trees, and shrubs) responded similarlytothe same suite of environmental variables; and 3) determine if discreteecotonaland/or ecoclinal vegetation patterns were present across the landscape. Woodyvegetation was sampled from 94 plots along 35 transects positioned at rightangles to the river channel. Sample plots were analyzed with DetrendedCorrespondence Analysis (DCA), Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA), andTWINSPAN. Overall, woody vegetation was correlated with several environmentalgradients, including elevation of the plot above the river, soil pH, soilmoisture, and soil particle size. Responses to secondary gradients differedamong the four classes of plants analyzed, however. CCA biplots of understorytrees indicated that patterns of those species were strongly correlated withslope through the plot and sand content of soil. CCA biplots of shrubs showedthat CCA axes were most strongly correlated with soil organic matter content,soil moisture, and silt content. Further, there was limited evidence fordiscrete assemblages of woody species, with the exception of streamsidevegetation. Instead, mixing of woody species was observed across a broadtransition zone. Because there is little correspondence between vegetationlayers, our results demonstrate including plant classes other than a subset ofcanopy dominant trees can provide additional resolution in characterizingvegetation responses along complex environmental gradients.

Community protection of the Manas Biosphere Reserve in Assam, India, and the Endangered golden langur Trachypithecus geei

The Golden Langur Conservation Project in Assam, India, was initiated to involve local NGOs and communities in protecting the Endangered golden langur Trachypithecus geei and its habitat on a regional basis within a complex political situation. Since langurs are leaf eaters they are dependent on forests. The Project area, once dominated by militant action and ethnic violence, is in a densely populated area and formerly suffered much illegal deforestation and accompanying reduction in the golden langur population. The Project began with two NGOs and evolved into the formation of a forum of five NGOs focusing on a large proportion of the golden langur range in Assam, and eventually included > 11 newly formed community-based organizations. Each NGO focused on nearby Reserve Forests and their resident langur populations and adjacent human communities. The community-conservation tools used included (1) initial local community awareness campaigns, (2) formation of local Forest Committees and Self Help Groups, (3) a major regional awareness campaign about the golden langur and its forested habitat in the Manas Biosphere Reserve, and (4) creation of a number of village-based Forest Protection Forces. The Golden Langur Conservation Project has resulted in an increase in the total Indian population of golden langurs, control of illegal logging and poaching in two isolated Reserve Forests by formation of a protection force of surrounding village groups, and curtailing illegal logging and increasing forest protection in the Reserve Forests of the Manas Biosphere Reserve by the formation of 10 tribal, government-sanctioned volunteer Forest Protection Forces. The Project created an atmosphere of community awareness of the golden langur and its forests and community interest within the region, with communities taking responsibility for protection of regional forests.

Preserving Biodiversity and Ecosystems: Catalyzing Conservation Contagion

The natural world is in a chronic state of crisis and under constant threat of degradation, primarily by anthropogenic factors. In general, current conservation strategies have failed to effect long-range solutions to the rapid loss of biodiversity (Persha et al., 2011). Deforestation continues despite efforts by mainstream (top-down) conservation programs (Persha et al., 2011; Schmitt et al., 2009), and the effectiveness of large-scale protected areas has, at best, a mixed record of success (Brockington et al., 2008; Persha et al., 2011). Scientific disciplines, in particular, ecology and conservation biology, continue to emphasize threats to biodiversity (Schipper et al., 2008), to debate conservation priorities (Brooks et al., 2006), to advance unproven strategies (SSC, 2008), and to offer no more than hypothetical solutions to pressing problems (Milner-Gulland et al., 2010; Turner et al., 2007). The bulk of the scientific community remains tangential to the conservation needs of communities in habitat countries, with a critical lack of input and connectivity between the extensive scientific literature and ground-level practices (Milner-Gulland et al., 2010).

Macrophyte Species Assemblages and Distribution in a Shallow, Eutrophic Lake

Abstract The objectives of this project were to: assess the presence of aquatic macrophyte species assemblages, associations, and/or communities; assess the distribution of Cabomba caroliniana (fanwort) and other macrophytes with water depth; and analyze the spatial distribution of fanwort and other macrophytes using a Geographical Information System (GIS). The study site was a shallow, eutrophic lake in North Reading, MA. Macrophytes were sampled along 36 transects located across the littoral zone. Ordination analysis showed some strong macrophyte associations and the presence of four partially distinct communities. However, the two most abundant species at the site, Cabomba and an aquatic moss (Drepanocladus sp.) had both limited associations with other species and were strongly segregated from one another. Our results show that spatial and distributional analyses can be coupled with macrophyte composition data to provide robust assessments of macrophyte species patterns. These techniques are especially valuable when assessing the extent and influence of non-native, invasive macrophyte species.

Impacts of Hay‐Scented Fern on Nutrition of Northern Red Oak Seedlings

Abstract A greenhouse study was conducted to assess the impacts of hay‐scented fern (Dennstaedtia punctilobula [Michx.] Moore) on the nutrition of first‐year, northern red oak (Quercus rubra L.) seedlings. Four common forest soil types in Pennsylvania were chosen as growth media for the study—two nutritionally poor soils and two moderately nutritional soils. Oaks and ferns were grown separately and together. Total macronutrient content [phosphorus (P), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg)] was positively and significantly related to biomass in red oak, but not in ferns. Oaks grown with ferns exhibited greater nutrient imbalances and diminished nutrient status compared to oaks grown alone on all four soils. When grown with ferns, oak foliage exhibited significantly lower concentrations of K on all four soils, lower nitrogen (N) on three of four soils and lower P on two of four soils when compared to oaks grown alone. Conversely, ferns grown with oaks had fronds with significantly higher concentrations of N and K on all four soils and higher P on three of four soils. Differential nutrient capture between hay‐scented fern versus oak seedlings was evident in this study and interspecific competition from hay‐scented fern was shown to alter the nutritional balance of red oak seedlings. Hay‐scented fern exhibited a competitive advantage over red oak in maintaining growth and acquiring nutrients and nutrient competition was identified as a specific mechanism of below ground interference by hay‐scented fern.