Jonathan M. Cheek

Shyness, Self-Esteem, and Self-Consciousness

Shyness is the ordinary language term most often used to label feelings of anxiety and inhibition in social situations. It is a remarkably common experience. Less than 10% of respondents to a cross-cultural survey reported that they had never felt shy (Zimbardo, 1977). Ratings of shyness-eliciting events reveal that interactions with strangers, especially those of the opposite sex or in positions of authority, situations requiring assertive behavior, and explicitly evaluative settings such as job interviews, provoke the strongest feelings of social anxiety (Russell, Cutrona, & Jones, 1986; Watson & Cheek, 1986).

Shyness and verbal creativity

Abstract This experiment tested the hypothesis that shy people may be less creative than those who are not shy. Forty-two college women who had previously completed the Shyness Scale and the Private Self-Consciousness Scale wrote poems which were rated for creativity. Half of the subjects were told that they would receive evaluative feedback regarding the quality of their poems. The negative relationship between shyness and creative performance was substantial when the trait of shyness was salient, due either to the private self-consciousness of the subject or to anticipation of evaluation. These results were discussed from the perspective of cognitive approaches to social anxiety.

Shame, guilt, and identity in men and women: the role of identity orientation and processing style in moral affects

Abstract In the current study, 200 women and 106 men (M age = 19.6 years old) completed measures of shame, guilt, identity-orientation, and identity-processing styles. Women reported greater shame and guilt than men. Zero-order and partial correlates indicated that for both women and men shame was related positively to a social identity (one’s public image as presented through roles and relationships) and a diffuse processing style (both self-relevant information and self-exploration about one’s identity is avoided), while guilt was related to personal identity (conceptualizing oneself as unique) and an information-oriented style (self-exploration of personal issues occurs). Integration of identity orientation and cognitive processing styles in relation to shame and guilt was discussed.

Psychometric Properties of the Revised Cheek and Buss Shyness Scale

Although the Revised Cheek and Buss Shyness Scale (RCBS; Cheek, 1983) is widely used, its psychometric properties largely are unknown. In this investigation, we examined the normative data, factor structure, internal consistency, test-retest reliability, and convergent/discriminant validity of the RCBS using a sample of 261 university students. Results provided strong support for the stability of normative data over time, reliability of the measure, and its predicted associations with contemporary measures of shyness, social anxiety, and related constructs. Although support was obtained for a unifactorial conceptualization of shyness, an exploratory factor analysis revealed an alternative 3-factor solution that was supportive of a previously proposed meta-analytic model of shyness (Jones, Briggs, & Smith, 1986) and was consistent with other prominent shyness theories (Buss, 1980; Pilkonis, 1977a, 1977b; Zimbardo, 1977). This factor model was replicable on a holdout sample, and there were some data to support the discriminant validity of factors.

Shyness and Self-Concept

Shyness is a major adjustment problem in the psychopathology of everyday life. Surveys reveal that about 40% of Americans consider themselves to be shy, and that over 80% of these people do not like being shy (Pilkonis, 1977a; Zimbardo, 1977). Psychotherapist Sheldon Kopp (1976) has observed that “neurotic shyness constitutes a significant portion of the burden of needless suffering borne by the men and women who seek my help” (p. 28). Recently, research psychologists have begun to direct a great deal of attention to the study of shyness (e.g., Buss, 1980; Jones, Cheek, & Briggs, 1986; Leary, 1983). The purpose of this chapter is to present this research in a framework that is organized in terms of the shy person’s self-concept. After defining shyness, we begin by considering a structural model of dimensions of self-esteem. Next, we examine the dynamics of shyness as revealed in self-concept processes, such as attributions, memories, and the focus of attention. Then we consider shyness from the perspective of self-presentation theory. Finally, we discuss the degree of accuracy found in comparisons of shy people’s self-perceptions with ratings made by observers.

Shyness, self-preoccupation and the stroop color and world test

Abstract Forty college women who had been pre-tested on a measure of shyness, took the Stroop Color and World Test twice and completed a post-session questionnaire concerning their reactions to taking the test. Shy S s had significantly lower Color-Word scores on the second Stroop test administration, indicating cognitive interference and distractibility. Shyness was also significantly correlated with self-reports of worry and test-irrelevant thinking as reactions to taking the Stroop test. These results are discussed from the perspective of cognitive approaches to shyness.

Effects of Endurance Training on Body-Consciousness in Women

The Body Consciousness Questionnaire by Miller, Murphy, and Buss in 1981 was employed to assess the effects of intensive endurance training on changes in self-perception in 13 women volunteers aged 20 to 30 yr. The participants engaged in an intensive progressive running program for 6 to 8 wk. Additional moderate exercise (softball or volleyball) was engaged in for 3 ½ hr. per day. Before and after the training subjects completed the questionnaire on self-perceived attributes of internal body consciousness, public body consciousness, and body competence. Aerobic fitness, measured pre- and posttraining, significantly increased while body fat and weight significantly decreased. In consonance with these physiological changes, rated self-perception of internal body consciousness and body competence increased significantly while public body consciousness remained unchanged. Self-report of internal body consciousness tended to increase in proportion to changes in fitness (r = 0.53). These results suggest that endurance and moderate exercise training contribute to increased self-perception specifically with regard to perceived internal and body competence.

Aspects of identity: From the inner-outer metaphor to a tetrapartite model of the self

Abstract We review a program of research on identity orientations – the relative importance or value that individuals place on various identity attributes when constructing their self-definitions. We first provide a brief history of the development of our measure of identity orientations – the Aspects of Identity Questionnaire (AIQ) – after which we present our tetrapartite model of the self that distinguishes among individual, relational, public, and collective aspects of identity. We then review previous research on how the four identity orientations uniquely influence cognition, emotion, and behavior, and close by highlighting what we see as interesting and important directions for future research.