Joost H.A. Folgering

How do membrane proteins sense water stress

Maintenance of cell turgor is a prerequisite for almost any form of life as it provides a mechanical force for the expansion of the cell envelope. As changes in extracellular osmolality will have similar physicochemical effects on cells from all biological kingdoms, the responses to osmotic stress may be alike in all organisms. The primary response of bacteria to osmotic upshifts involves the activation of transporters, to effect the rapid accumulation of osmo‐protectants, and sensor kinases, to increase the transport and/or biosynthetic capacity for these solutes. Upon osmotic downshift, the excess of cytoplasmic solutes is released via mechanosensitive channel proteins. A number of breakthroughs in the last one or two years have led to tremendous advances in our understanding of the molecular mechanisms of osmosensing in bacteria. The possible mechanisms of osmosensing, and the actual evidence for a particular mechanism, are presented for well studied, osmoregulated transport systems, sensor kinases and mechanosensitive channel proteins. The emerging picture is that intracellular ionic solutes (or ionic strength) serve as a signal for the activation of the upshift‐activated transporters and sensor kinases. For at least one system, there is strong evidence that the signal is transduced to the protein complex via alterations in the protein–lipid interactions rather than direct sensing of ion concentration or ionic strength by the proteins. The osmotic downshift‐activated mechanosensitive channels, on the other hand, sense tension in the membrane but other factors such as hydration state of the protein may affect the equilibrium between open and closed states of the proteins.

Direct effect of nicotine on mesolimbic dopamine release in rat nucleus accumbens shell

Nicotine stimulates dopamine (DA) cell firing via a local action at somatodendritic sites in the ventral tegmental area (VTA), increasing DA release in the nucleus accumbens (NAcc). Additionally, nicotine may also modulate DA release via a direct effect in the NAcc. This study examined the contribution of the latter mechanism on NAcc DA release by applying nicotine systemically, as well as locally in the VTA and NAcc shell region in rats. Furthermore, the effect of i.v. nicotine on cell firing rate of dopaminergic neurons in the VTA was measured. Systemic administration of nicotine (0.32mg/kg s.c.) increased extracellular DA levels in the NAcc to ∼1.5 fold of baseline, while DA levels in the VTA remained unaffected. A similar DA increase was observed after local NAcc infusion of nicotine (1μM and 10μM). However, 10-1000-fold higher nicotine concentrations were required in the VTA to produce a comparable 150% increase in extracellular DA levels in the ipsilateral NAcc. Additionally, electrophysiological experiments showed that the dopaminergic firing rate in the VTA showed a trend towards an increase after a nicotine dose of 0.1mg/kg i.v. Taken together these data indicate that the effects of nicotine on DA release at the level of the NAcc might be more important for the rewarding effects than originally proposed.

Antagonism of 5-HT1A receptors uncovers an excitatory effect of SSRIs on 5-HT neuronal activity, an action probably mediated by 5-HT7 receptors

Both microdialysis and electrophysiology were used to investigate whether another serotonin (5‐HT) receptor subtype next to the 5‐HT1A autoreceptor is involved in the acute effects of a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor on 5‐HT neuronal activity. On the basis of a previous study, we decided to investigate the involvement of the 5‐HT7 receptors. Experiments were performed with the specific 5‐HT7 antagonist SB 258741 and the putative 5‐HT7 agonist AS19. In this study WAY 100.635 was used to block 5‐HT1A receptors. Systemic administration of SB 258741 significantly reduced the effect of combined selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor and WAY 100.635 administration on extracellular 5‐HT in the ventral hippocampus as well as 5‐HT neuronal firing in the dorsal raphe nucleus. In the microdialysis study, co‐administration of AS19 and WAY 100.635 showed a biphasic effect on extracellular 5‐HT in ventral hippocampus, hinting at opposed 5‐HT7 receptor mediated effects. In the electrophysiological experiments, systemic administration of AS19 alone displayed a bell‐shaped dose–effect curve: moderately increasing 5‐HT neuronal firing at lower doses while decreasing it at higher doses. SB 258741 was capable of blocking the effect of AS19 at a low dose. This is consistent with the pharmacological profile of AS19, displaying high affinity for 5‐HT7 receptors and moderate affinity for 5‐HT1A receptors. The data are in support of an excitatory effect of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors on 5‐HT neuronal activity mediated by 5‐HT7 receptors. It can be speculated, that the restoration of 5‐HT neuronal firing upon chronic antidepressant treatment, which is generally attributed to desensitization of 5‐HT1A receptors alone, in fact results from a shift in balance between 5‐HT1A and 5‐HT7 receptor function.

Tapentadol increases levels of noradrenaline in the rat spinal cord as measured by in vivo microdialysis

Spinal noradrenaline is thought to play an important role in descending pain inhibitory pathways and the modulation of nociceptive information at the spinal level. Tapentadol is a μ-opioid receptor (MOR) agonist and noradrenaline reuptake inhibitor (NRI). We showed previously that tapentadol, in contrast to morphine, elevates levels of noradrenaline, but not serotonin, in the ventral hippocampus of rats. The aim of this study was to examine the effects of tapentadol, morphine and venlafaxine on spinal monoamine levels. Rats were implanted with spinal microdialysis probes. Drugs were administered intraperitoneally, and samples were collected for 3h in isoflurane-anesthetized animals and analysed for monoamine content using HPLC-MS/MS. In terms of area-under-curve (AUC, 0-180 min), tapentadol (4.64-21.5mg/kg) produced a dose-dependent, significant increase in extracellular spinal noradrenaline levels (9275±4346 min% at the highest dose versus -1047±889 min% for vehicle). A maximum increase of 182±32% of baseline was reached 60 min after administration of 10mg/kg tapentadol. Venlafaxine (10mg/kg) produced an effect of similar magnitude. In contrast, tapentadol decreased extracellular spinal serotonin levels (non-significantly compared to vehicle), while venlafaxine increased spinal serotonin to 267±74% of baseline. In contrast to tapentadol and venlafaxine, morphine slightly decreased levels of noradrenaline and serotonin. This study demonstrates that analgesic doses of tapentadol (and venlafaxine), but not morphine, increase spinal noradrenaline levels and that tapentadol is devoid of a relevant serotonergic effect. It supports the suggestion that the NRI component of tapentadol is functionally relevant and contributes to its mechanism of action.

Interaction Between Brain Histamine and Serotonin, Norepinephrine, and Dopamine Systems: In Vivo Microdialysis and Electrophysiology Study

Brain monoamines (serotonin, norepinephrine, dopamine, and histamine) play an important role in emotions, cognition, and pathophysiology and treatment of mental disorders. The interactions between serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine were studied in numerous works; however, histamine system received less attention. The aim of this study was to investigate the interactions between histamine and other monoamines, using in vivo microdialysis and electrophysiology. It was found that the inverse agonist of histamine-3 receptors, thioperamide, increased the firing activity of dopamine neurons in the ventral tegmental area. Selective agonist of histamine-3 receptors, immepip, reversed thiperamide-induced stimulation of firing activity of dopamine neurons. The firing rates of serotonin and norpeinephrine neurons were not attenuated by immepip or thioperamide. Thioperamide robustly and significantly increased extracellular concentrations of serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine in the rat prefrontal cortex and slightly increased norepinephrine and dopamine levels in the tuberomammillary nucleus of the hypothalamus. It can be concluded that histamine stimulates serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine transmission in the brain. Modulation of firing of dopamine neurons is a key element in functional interactions between histamine and other monoamines. Antagonists of histamine-3 receptors, because of their potential ability to stimulate monoamine neurotransmission, might be beneficial in the treatment of mental disorders.

Relevance of dorsal raphe nucleus firing in serotonin 5-HT2C receptor blockade-induced augmentation of SSRIs effects

Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors are the most widely prescribed antidepressant drugs. However, they exhibit a slow onset of action, putatively due to the initial decrease in serotonin cell firing mediated via somato-dendritic autoreceptors. Interestingly, blockade of 5-HT(2C) receptors significantly potentiates the effect of citalopram, a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor, on serotonin efflux in the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex (Cremers, T.I.F.H., Giorgetti, M., Bosker, F.J., Hogg, S., Arnt, J., Mork, A., Honig, G., Bøgesø, K.P., Westerink, B.H.C., den Boer, J.A., Wikstrøm, H.V., Tecott, L.H., 2004. Inactivation of 5-HT(2C) receptors potentiates consequences of serotonin reuptake blockade. Neuropsychopharmacology 29, 1782-1789; Cremers, T.I.F.H., Rea, K., Bosker, F.J., Wikström, H.V., Hogg, S., Mørk, A., Westerink, B.H.C., 2007. Augmentation of SSRI effects on serotonin by 5-HT(2C) antagonists: mechanistic studies. Neuropsychopharmacology 32, 1550-1557.). Using in vivo electrophysiology, we show in the present study that the purported selective 5-HT(2C) receptor antagonist, SB242,084, dose-dependently counteracts citalopram-induced inhibition of serotonin cell firing. Even though the effect of SB242,084 is significant at a dose found in vivo to also partially occupy 5-HT(2A) receptors, indicating a possible contribution of a partial blockade of 5-HT(2A) receptors together with 5-HT(2C) receptors, we suggest that high occupancy at 5-HT(2C) receptors is essential for the blockade of the inhibitory effect of citalopram on 5-HT cell firing. Using microdialysis, we also show that the potentiation by SB242,084 on serotonin efflux requires an action of citalopram outside the terminal, most likely at the somato-dendritic level (i.e., on serotonin cell firing). Further experiments using local 5-HT(2C) receptor blockade indicate a role of 5-HT(2C) receptors located in the prefrontal cortex. Modulation of short or long feedback loops originating in the prefrontal cortex by 5-HT(2C) receptors could directly inhibit serotonin efflux, or alternatively, regulate serotonin cell firing in the dorsal raphe nucleus, thereby modulating serotonin efflux indirectly.

The role of cortical and hypothalamic histamine-3 receptors in the modulation of central histamine neurotransmission: an in vivo electrophysiology and microdialysis study

The current study aimed to investigate the effect of histamine‐3 (H3) receptors, expressed in the tuberomammillary nucleus (TMN) of the hypothalamus and in the prefrontal cortex (PFC), on histamine neurotransmission in the rat brain. The firing activity of histamine neurons in the TMN was measured using in vivo extracellular single‐unit electrophysiology, under propofol anesthesia. Extracellular histamine levels were determined using the dual (PFC and TMN) probe microdialysis, in freely‐moving animals. Histamine levels in dialysates were determined using high‐performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and fluorescence detection. It was found that systemic administration of the selective H3‐agonist, immepip, decreases, and the reverse H3/H4‐agonist, thioperamide, increases the firing activity of histamine neurons in the TMN and the release of histamine in TMN and PFC. Local perfusion of immepip into the TMN increased, and thioperamide decreased, histamine levels in the TMN but not in the PFC. Local perfusion of immepip into the PFC, however, decreased extracellular histamine levels in both TMN and PFC. It can be concluded that brain H3 receptors, and especially those expressed in the PFC, play an important role in the autoregulation of histamine neurotransmission. It is possible that H3 receptors in the PFC are expressed on pyramidal neurons projecting to the TMN, and activation of these receptors diminishes glutamate excitatory input from PFC to the TMN. As the brain histamine system has a role in pathophysiology of psychotic, affective, cognitive, sleep and eating disorders, H3 receptors are potential targets for future CNS medications.

α1-Adrenoceptors modulate citalopram-induced serotonin release

Previous studies suggest that noradrenaline may regulate serotonergic (5-HT) neurotransmission at the serotonin cell body and noradrenaline nerve terminal. Using microdialysis coupled to HPLC, we investigated the effects of alpha1-adrenoceptor manipulation on extracellular serotonin levels - in the ventral hippocampus, prefrontal cortex, and raphe nuclei - in the presence or absence of the serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI), citalopram. Extracellular 5-HT levels from prefrontal cortex, ventral hippocampus and raphe nuclei were markedly increased following citalopram administration (3.0 mg/kg s.c.). In the prefrontal cortex and ventral hippocampus, local blockade of the alpha1-adrenoceptor (3.0 microM prazosin infusion) significantly decreased this citalopram-induced increase in serotonin, while cirazoline (alpha1-adrenoceptor agonist) and reboxetine (noradrenaline reuptake inhibitor) further increased extracellular serotonin levels when administered systemically (0.02 mg/kg i.p. and 5.0 mg/kg s.c. respectively) or locally infused (10.0 microM and 1.0 microM respectively). Moreover, prazosin pre-infusion into terminal areas prevented the increase in citalopram-induced increase in serotonin levels with systemic cirazoline or reboxetine administration. Prazosin also decreased the citalopram-induced increase in serotonin levels in the raphe nuclei; however no enhancement of the SSRI response was observed with systemic or local administration of cirazoline or reboxetine, suggesting that alpha1-adrenoceptors may already be maximally activated under these conditions. These data provide strong evidence that after acute citalopram administration, the alpha1-adrenoceptor exerts a modulatory role on serotonin levels.

Upregulation of the dorsal raphe nucleus-prefrontal cortex serotonin system by chronic treatment with escitalopram in hyposerotonergic Wistar-Kyoto rats

Wistar-Kyoto (WKY) rats are sensitive to chronic stressors and exhibit depression-like behavior. Dorsal raphe nucleus (DRN) serotonin (5-HT) neurons projecting to the prefrontal cortex (PFC) comprise the important neurocircuitry underlying the pathophysiology of depression. To evaluate the DRN-PFC 5-HT system in WKY rats, we examined the effects of escitalopram (ESCIT) on the extracellular 5-HT level in comparison with Wistar rats using dual-probe microdialysis. The basal levels of 5-HT in the DRN, but not in the PFC, in WKY rats was reduced as low as 30% of Wistar rats. Responses of 5-HT in the DRN and PFC to ESCIT administered systemically and locally were attenuated in WKY rats. Feedback inhibition of DRN 5-HT release induced by ESCIT into the PFC was also attenuated in WKY rats. Chronic ESCIT induced upregulation of the DRN-PFC 5-HT system in WKY rats, with increases in basal 5-HT in the DRN, responsiveness to ESCIT in the DRN and PFC, and feedback inhibition, whereas downregulation of these effects was induced in Wistar rats. Thus, the WKY rat is an animal model of depression with low activity of the DRN-PFC 5HT system. The finding that chronic ESCIT upregulates the 5-HT system in hyposerotonergic WKY rats may contribute to improved understanding of mechanisms of action of antidepressants, especially in depression with 5-HT deficiency.

Effect of co-administration of varenicline and antidepressants on extracellular monoamine concentrations in rat prefrontal cortex

Since a substantial proportion of smokers have comorbid mood disorders, the smoking cessation aid varenicline might occasionally be prescribed to patients who are simultaneously treated with antidepressants. Given that varenicline is a selective nicotinic acetylcholine receptor partial agonist and not a substrate or inhibitor of drug metabolizing enzymes, pharmacokinetic interactions with various classes of antidepressants are highly unlikely. It is, however, conceivable that varenicline may have a pharmacodynamic effect on antidepressant-evoked increases in central monoamine release. Interactions resulting in excessive transmitter release could cause adverse events such as serotonin syndrome, while attenuation of monoamine release could impact the clinical efficacy of antidepressants. To investigate this we examined whether varenicline administration modulates the effects of the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor sertraline and the monoamine oxidase inhibitor clorgyline, given alone and combined, on extracellular concentrations of the monoamines serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine in rat brain by microdialysis. Given the important role attributed to cortical monoamine release in serotonin syndrome as well as antidepressant activity, the effects on extracellular monoamine concentrations were measured in the medial prefrontal cortex. Responses to maximally effective doses of sertraline or clorgyline and of sertraline plus clorgyline were the same in the absence as in the presence of a relatively high dose of varenicline, which by itself had no significant effect on cortical monoamine release. This is consistent with the binding profile of varenicline that has insufficient affinity for receptors, enzymes, or transporters to inhibit or potentiate the pharmacologic effects of antidepressants. Since varenicline neither diminished nor potentiated sertraline- or clorgyline-induced increases in neurotransmitter levels, combining varenicline with serotonergic antidepressants is unlikely to cause excessive serotonin release or to attenuate antidepressant efficacy via effects on cortical serotonin, dopamine or norepinephrine release.