Jordan Etkin

Pressed for time? Goal conflict shapes how time is perceived, spent, and valued

Why do consumers often feel pressed for time? This research provides a novel answer to this question: consumers’ subjective perceptions of goal conflict. The authors show that beyond the number of goals competing for consumers’ time, perceived conflict between goals makes them feel that they have less time. Five experiments demonstrate that perceiving greater conflict between goals makes people feel time constrained and that stress and anxiety drive this effect. These effects, which generalize across a variety of goals and types of conflict (both related and unrelated to demands on time), influence how consumers spend time as well as how much they are willing to pay to save time. The authors identify two simple interventions that can help consumers mitigate goal conflicts negative effects: slow breathing and anxiety reappraisal. Together, the findings shed light on the factors that drive how consumers perceive, spend, and value their time.

Goal Pursuit, Now and Later: Temporal Compatibility of Different versus Similar Means

Compatibility between the degree of similarity among means to goal attainment and the anticipated timing of goal pursuit increases goal-directed motivation. Six studies demonstrate that consumers are more motivated and willing to pay for means to goal attainment in the near term when they plan to use a set of different (vs. similar) means. In contrast, consumers are more motivated and willing to pay for means to goal attainment in the long term when they plan to use similar (vs. different) means. For example, consumers paid more for a personal training session when told it would include exercises for different (similar) muscle groups and would take place this week (next month). These effects are driven by the ease of processing differences (similarities) when considering the near (far) future. Similar results were obtained across various domains, including health and fitness, saving money, and academic performance.

Choosing Variety for Joint Consumption

Consumers often make choices for joint consumption with committed relationship partners, and these choices may include more or less variety. When planning a weekend for oneself and ones spouse, for example, a person could choose more varied activities (e.g., going out to dinner, to a movie, and to a concert) or less varied activities (e.g., seeing several different movies). What might affect how much variety people choose? Five experiments demonstrate that how much variety consumers prefer for joint consumption in committed relationships depends on their relationship time perspective (i.e., the perceived time ahead in the relationship). When consumers perceive more (vs. less) time ahead in a committed relationship, they prefer more variety for joint consumption with their partners. This increased preference for variety is driven by a shift in how much excitement is valued within the relationship and is unique to choices for joint consumption with the specific relationship partner. The findings demonstrate that variety preferences depend not just on personal or situational factors but also on aspects of consumers’ social relationships.

How winning changes motivation in multiphase competitions.

What drives motivation in multiphase competitions? Adopting a dynamic approach, this research examines how temporary standing—being ahead of (vs. behind) one’s opponent—in a multiphase competition shapes subsequent motivation. Six competitions conducted in the lab and in the field demonstrate that the impact of being ahead on contestants’ motivation depends on when (i.e., in which phase of the competition) contestants learn they are in the lead. In the early phase, contestants are concerned about whether they can win; being ahead increases motivation by making winning seem more attainable. In the later phase, however, contestants are instead driven by how much additional effort they believe they need to invest; being ahead decreases motivation by reducing contestants’ estimate of the remaining effort needed to win. Temporary standing thus has divergent effects on motivation in multiphase competitions, driven by a shift in contestants’ main concern from the early to the later phase and thus the meaning they derive from being ahead of their opponent. By leveraging insights gained from approaching individuals’ self-regulation as a dynamic process, this research advances understanding of how motivation evolves in a unique interdependent self-regulatory context.

Time in relation to goals

One of the most important aspects of goals is time. From how goals are set to the dynamics of goal pursuit, time plays an important and multifaceted role. Goals to walk 10000 steps per day or to call ones parents once a week, for example, are defined by time (e.g. a day or week), pursued over time (e.g. for multiple days or multiple weeks), and subject to constraints on time (e.g. needing to also spend time on work). This article discusses three key ways to think about time in relation to goals: time as a defining feature of goals, as a dimension of goal pursuit, and as a constraint on goal pursuit. I discuss prior research relevant to this organizing framework and conclude with a discussion of emerging topics and opportunities for further investigation.