Jörg Harms

Structural basis for the interaction of antibiotics with the peptidyl transferase centre in eubacteria

Ribosomes, the site of protein synthesis, are a major target for natural and synthetic antibiotics. Detailed knowledge of antibiotic binding sites is central to understanding the mechanisms of drug action. Conversely, drugs are excellent tools for studying the ribosome function. To elucidate the structural basis of ribosome–antibiotic interactions, we determined the high-resolution X-ray structures of the 50S ribosomal subunit of the eubacterium Deinococcus radiodurans, complexed with the clinically relevant antibiotics chloramphenicol, clindamycin and the three macrolides erythromycin, clarithromycin and roxithromycin. We found that antibiotic binding sites are composed exclusively of segments of 23S ribosomal RNA at the peptidyl transferase cavity and do not involve any interaction of the drugs with ribosomal proteins. Here we report the details of antibiotic interactions with the components of their binding sites. Our results also show the importance of putative Mg+2 ions for the binding of some drugs. This structural analysis should facilitate rational drug design.

Crystal structures of complexes of the small ribosomal subunit with tetracycline, edeine and IF3.

The small ribosomal subunit is responsible for the decoding of genetic information and plays a key role in the initiation of protein synthesis. We analyzed by X‐ray crystallography the structures of three different complexes of the small ribosomal subunit of Thermus thermophilus with the A‐site inhibitor tetracycline, the universal initiation inhibitor edeine and the C‐terminal domain of the translation initiation factor IF3. The crystal structure analysis of the complex with tetracycline revealed the functionally important site responsible for the blockage of the A‐site. Five additional tetracycline sites resolve most of the controversial biochemical data on the location of tetracycline. The interaction of edeine with the small subunit indicates its role in inhibiting initiation and shows its involvement with P‐site tRNA. The location of the C‐terminal domain of IF3, at the solvent side of the platform, sheds light on the formation of the initiation complex, and implies that the anti‐association activity of IF3 is due to its influence on the conformational dynamics of the small ribosomal subunit.

Structural Basis for the Function of the Ribosomal L7/12 Stalk in Factor Binding and GTPase Activation.

The L7/12 stalk of the large subunit of bacterial ribosomes encompasses protein L10 and multiple copies of L7/12. We present crystal structures of Thermotoga maritima L10 in complex with three L7/12 N-terminal-domain dimers, refine the structure of an archaeal L10E N-terminal domain on the 50S subunit, and identify these elements in cryo-electron-microscopic reconstructions of Escherichia coli ribosomes. The mobile C-terminal helix alpha8 of L10 carries three L7/12 dimers in T. maritima and two in E. coli, in concordance with the different length of helix alpha8 of L10 in these organisms. The stalk is organized into three elements (stalk base, L10 helix alpha8-L7/12 N-terminal-domain complex, and L7/12 C-terminal domains) linked by flexible connections. Highly mobile L7/12 C-terminal domains promote recruitment of translation factors to the ribosome and stimulate GTP hydrolysis by the ribosome bound factors through stabilization of their active GTPase conformation.

Inhibition of peptide bond formation by pleuromutilins: the structure of the 50S ribosomal subunit from Deinococcus radiodurans in complex with tiamulin

Tiamulin, a prominent member of the pleuromutilin class of antibiotics, is a potent inhibitor of protein synthesis in bacteria. Up to now the effect of pleuromutilins on the ribosome has not been determined on a molecular level. The 3.5 Å structure of the 50S ribosomal subunit from Deinococcus radiodurans in complex with tiamulin provides for the first time a detailed picture of its interactions with the 23S rRNA, thus explaining the molecular mechanism of the antimicrobial activity of the pleuromutilin class of antibiotics. Our results show that tiamulin is located within the peptidyl transferase center (PTC) of the 50S ribosomal subunit with its tricyclic mutilin core positioned in a tight pocket at the A‐tRNA binding site. Also, the extension, which protrudes from its mutilin core, partially overlaps with the P‐tRNA binding site. Thereby, tiamulin directly inhibits peptide bond formation. Comparison of the tiamulin binding site with other PTC targeting drugs, like chloramphenicol, clindamycin and streptogramins, may facilitate the design of modified or hybridized drugs that extend the applicability of this class of antibiotics.

Alterations at the peptidyl transferase centre of the ribosome induced by the synergistic action of the streptogramins dalfopristin and quinupristin

BackgroundThe bacterial ribosome is a primary target of several classes of antibiotics. Investigation of the structure of the ribosomal subunits in complex with different antibiotics can reveal the mode of inhibition of ribosomal protein synthesis. Analysis of the interactions between antibiotics and the ribosome permits investigation of the specific effect of modifications leading to antimicrobial resistances.Streptogramins are unique among the ribosome-targeting antibiotics because they consist of two components, streptogramins A and B, which act synergistically. Each compound alone exhibits a weak bacteriostatic activity, whereas the combination can act bactericidal. The streptogramins A display a prolonged activity that even persists after removal of the drug. However, the mode of activity of the streptogramins has not yet been fully elucidated, despite a plethora of biochemical and structural data.ResultsThe investigation of the crystal structure of the 50S ribosomal subunit from Deinococcus radiodurans in complex with the clinically relevant streptogramins quinupristin and dalfopristin reveals their unique inhibitory mechanism. Quinupristin, a streptogramin B compound, binds in the ribosomal exit tunnel in a similar manner and position as the macrolides, suggesting a similar inhibitory mechanism, namely blockage of the ribosomal tunnel. Dalfopristin, the corresponding streptogramin A compound, binds close to quinupristin directly within the peptidyl transferase centre affecting both A- and P-site occupation by tRNA molecules.ConclusionsThe crystal structure indicates that the synergistic effect derives from direct interaction between both compounds and shared contacts with a single nucleotide, A2062. Upon binding of the streptogramins, the peptidyl transferase centre undergoes a significant conformational transition, which leads to a stable, non-productive orientation of the universally conserved U2585. Mutations of this rRNA base are known to yield dominant lethal phenotypes. It seems, therefore, plausible to conclude that the conformational change within the peptidyl transferase centre is mainly responsible for the bactericidal activity of the streptogramins and the post-antibiotic inhibition of protein synthesis.

Species-specific antibiotic-ribosome interactions: implications for drug development

Abstract In the cell, the protein synthetic machinery is a highly complex apparatus that offers many potential sites for functional interference and therefore represents a major target for antibiotics. The recent plethora of crystal structures of ribosomal subunits in complex with various antibiotics has provided unparalleled insight into their mode of interaction and inhibition. However, differences in the conformation, orientation and position of some of these drugs bound to ribosomal subunits of Deinococcus radiodurans (D50S) compared to Haloarcula marismortui (H50S) have raised questions regarding the species specificity of binding. Revisiting the structural data for the bacterial D50S-antibiotic complexes reveals that the mode of binding of the macrolides, ketolides, streptogramins and lincosamides is generally similar to that observed in the archaeal H50S structures. However, small discrepancies are observed, predominantly resulting from species-specific differences in the ribosomal proteins and rRNA constituting the drug-binding sites. Understanding how these small alterations at the binding site influence interaction with the drug will be essential for rational design of more potent inhibitors.

Crystallographic Studies on the Ribosome, a Large Macromolecular Assembly Exhibiting Severe Nonisomorphism, Extreme Beam Sensitivity and No Internal Symmetry

Crystals, diffracting best to around 3 A, have been grown from intact large and small ribosomal subunits. The bright synchrotron radiation necessary for the collection of the higher-resolution X-ray diffraction data introduces significant decay even at cryo temperatures. Nevertheless, owing to the reasonable isomorphism of the recently improved crystals of the small ribosomal subunits, reliable phases have been extracted at medium resolution (5-6 A) and an interpretable five-derivative MIR map has been constructed. For the crystals of the large subunits, however, the situation is more complicated because at higher resolution (2.7-7 A) they suffer from substantial radiation sensitivity, a low level of isomorphism, instability of the longest unit-cell axis and nonisotropic mosaicity. The 8 A MIR map, constructed to gain insight into this unusual system, may provide feasible reasoning for the odd combination of the properties of these crystals as well as hints for future improvement. Parallel efforts, in which electron-microscopy-reconstructed images are being exploited for molecular-replacement studies, are also discussed.

Elucidating the medium-resolution structure of ribosomal particles: an interplay between electron cryo-microscopy and x-ray crystallography

BACKGROUND Ribosomes are the universal cellular organelles that accomplish the translation of the genetic code into proteins. Electron cryo-microscopy (cryo-EM) has yielded fairly detailed three-dimensional reconstructions of ribosomes. These were used to assist in the determination of higher resolution structures by X-ray crystallography. RESULTS Molecular replacement studies using cryo-EM reconstructions provided feasible packing schemes for crystals of ribosomes and their two subunits from Thermus thermophilus, and of the large subunits from Haloarcula marismortui. For the large subunits, these studies also confirmed the major heavy-atom sites obtained by single isomorphous replacement combined with anomalous diffraction (SIRAS) and by multiple isomorphous replacement combined with anomalous diffraction (MIRAS) at approximately 10 A. Although adequate starting phases could not be obtained for the small subunits, the crystals of which diffract to 3.0 A, cryo-EM reconstructions were indispensable for analyzing their 7.2 A multiple isomorphous replacement (MIR) map. This work indicated that the conformation of the crystallized small subunits resembles that seen within the 70S ribosomes. Subsequently, crystals of particles trapped in their functionally active state were grown. CONCLUSIONS Single-particle cryo-EM can contribute to the progress of crystallography of non-symmetrical, large and flexible macromolecular assemblies. Besides confirming heavy-atom sites, obtained from flat or overcrowded difference Patterson maps, the cryo-EM reconstructions assisted in elucidating packing arrangements. They also provided tools for the identification of the conformation within the crystals and for the estimation of the level of inherent non-isomorphism.

Ribosomal crystallography : from crystal growth to initial phasing

Preliminary phases were determined by the application of the isomorphous replacement method at low and intermediate resolution for structure factor amplitudes collected from crystals of large and small ribosomal subunits from halophilic and thermophilic bacteria. Derivatization was performed with dense heavy atom clusters, either by soaking or by specific covalent binding prior to the crystallization. The resulting initial electron density maps contain features comparable in size to those expected for the corresponding particles. The packing arrangements of these maps have been compared with motifs observed by electron microscopy in positively stained thin sections of embedded three-dimensional as well as with phase sets obtained by ab-initio computations. Aimed at higher resolution phasing, procedures are being developed for multi-site binding of relatively small dense metal clusters at selected locations. Potential sites are being inserted either by mutagenesis or by chemical modifications to facilitate cluster binding to the large halophilic and the small thermophil!c ribosomal subunits which yield crystals diffracting to the highest resolution obtained so far for ribosomes, 2.9 and 7.3 A, respectively. For this purpose the surfaces of these ribosomal particles have been characterized and conditions for quantitative reversible detachment of selected ribosomal proteins have been found. The corresponding genes are being cloned, sequenced, mutated to introduce the reactive side-groups (mainly cysteines) and overexpressed. To assist the interpretation of the anticipated electron density maps, sub-ribosomal stable complexes were isolated from H50S. One of these complexes is composed of two proteins and the other is made of a stretch of the rRNA and a protein. For exploiting the exposed parts of the surface of these complexes for heavy atom binding and for attempting the determination of their three-dimensional structure, their components are being produced genetically. The low resolution models reconstructed from tilt series of crystalline arrays of ribosomal particles are being employed for initial phasing. The tentative functional interpretation of these models stimulated the design and the crystallization of complexes mimicking

The identification of selected components in electron density maps of prokaryotic ribosomes at 7 Å resolution

Crystals of small and large ribosomal subunits from thermophilic and halophilic bacteria, diffracting to 3 A, are being subjected to structural analysis with synchrotron radiation. The bright beam necessary for detecting and collecting the diffraction at the higher-resolution shell causes significant decay even at 25 K. Nevertheless, data collected from native and heavy-atom-derivatized crystals led to the construction of electron density maps of both ribosomal subunits, showing recognizable morphologies and internal features similar to those observed by EM reconstructions of the corresponding ribosomal particle. The main features of these maps include elongated dense regions traceable as well separated RNA duplexes or single strands. Also seen are globular patches of lower density, readily distinguishable from the above, in which folds observed by NMR or crystallography in isolated ribosomal proteins at atomic resolution were detected. The intercomponents contacts identified so far reveal diverse modes of recognition. Metal clusters, attached at selected sites on the particles, are being exploited to facilitate unbiased map interpretation. In this way, two surface proteins were located and several surface RNA strands were targeted.