Jorid Birkelund Sørli

Adjuvant and Inflammatory Effects in Mice After Subchronic Inhalation of Allergen and Ozone-Initiated Limonene Reaction Products

Inhalation of ozone (O3), a highly toxic environmental pollutant, produces airway inflammation and exacerbates asthma. However, in indoor air, O3 reacts with terpenes (cyclic alkenes), leading to formation of airway irritating pollutants. The aim of the study was to examine whether inhalation of the reaction products of O3 and the terpene, limonene, as well as limonene and low-level O3 by themselves, induced allergic sensitization (formation of specific immunoglobulin [Ig] E) and airway inflammation in a subchronic mouse inhalation model in combination with the model allergen ovalbumin (OVA). BALB/cJ mice were exposed exclusively by inhalation for 5 d/wk for 2 wk and thereafter once weekly for 12 wk. Exposures were low-dose OVA in combination with O3, limonene, or limonene/O3 reaction products. OVA alone and OVA + Al(OH)3 served as control groups. Subsequently, all groups were exposed to a high-dose OVA solution on three consecutive days. Serum and bronchoalveolar lavage fluid were collected 24 h later. Limonene by itself did not promote neither OVA-specific IgE nor leukocyte inflammation. Low-level O3 promoted eosinophilic airway inflammation, but not OVA-specific IgE formation. The reaction products of limonene/O3 promoted allergic (OVA-specific IgE) sensitization, but lung inflammation, which is a characteristic of allergic asthma, was not observed. In conclusion, the study does not support an allergic inflammatory effect attributed to O3-initiated limonene reaction products in the indoor environment.

Limonene and its ozone-initiated reaction products attenuate allergic lung inflammation in mice

Abstract Inhalation of indoor air pollutants may cause airway irritation and inflammation and is suspected to worsen allergic reactions. Inflammation may be due to mucosal damage, upper (sensory) and lower (pulmonary) airway irritation due to activation of the trigeminal and vagal nerves, respectively, and to neurogenic inflammation. The terpene, d-limonene, is used as a fragrance in numerous consumer products. When limonene reacts with the pulmonary irritant ozone, a complex mixture of gas and particle phase products is formed, which causes sensory irritation. This study investigated whether limonene, ozone or the reaction mixture can exacerbate allergic lung inflammation and whether airway irritation is enhanced in allergic BALB/cJ mice. Naïve and allergic (ovalbumin sensitized) mice were exposed via inhalation for three consecutive days to clean air, ozone, limonene or an ozone–limonene reaction mixture. Sensory and pulmonary irritation was investigated in addition to ovalbumin-specific antibodies, inflammatory cells, total protein and surfactant protein D in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid and hemeoxygenase-1 and cytokines in lung tissue. Overall, airway allergy was not exacerbated by any of the exposures. In contrast, it was found that limonene and the ozone–limonene reaction mixture reduced allergic inflammation possibly due to antioxidant properties. Ozone induced sensory irritation in both naïve and allergic mice. However, allergic but not naïve mice were protected from pulmonary irritation induced by ozone. This study showed that irritation responses might be modulated by airway allergy. However, aggravation of allergic symptoms was observed by neither exposure to ozone nor exposure to ozone-initiated limonene reaction products. In contrast, anti-inflammatory properties of the tested limonene-containing pollutants might attenuate airway allergy.

Pulmonary toxicity following exposure to a tile coating product containing alkylsiloxanes. A clinical and toxicological evaluation.

Abstract Context. Coating products are widely used for making surfaces water and dirt repellent. However, on several occasions the use of these products has been associated with lung toxicity. Objective. In the present study, we evaluated the toxic effects of an aerosolized tile-coating product. Methods. Thirty-nine persons, who reported respiratory and systemic symptoms following exposure to the tile-coating product, were clinically examined. The product was analysed chemically and furthermore, the exposure scenario was reconstructed using a climate chamber and the toxicological properties of the product were studied using in vivo and by in vitro surfactometry. Results. The symptoms developed within few hours and included coughing, tachypnoea, chest pain, general malaise and fever. The physical examination revealed perihilar lung infiltrates on chest radiograph and reduced blood oxygen saturation. The acute symptoms resolved gradually within 1–3 days and no delayed symptoms were observed. By means of mass spectrometry and X-ray spectroscopy, it was shown that the product contained non-fluorinated alkylsiloxanes. The exposure conditions in the supermarket were reconstructed under controlled conditions in a climate chamber and particle and gas exposure levels were monitored over time allowing estimation of human exposure levels. Mice exposed to the product developed symptoms of acute pulmonary toxicity in a concentration-and time-dependent manner. The symptoms of acute pulmonary toxicity likely resulted from inhibition of the pulmonary surfactant function as demonstrated by in vitro surfactometry. Among these patients only a partial association between the level of exposure and the degree of respiratory symptoms was observed, which could be because of a high inter-individual difference in sensitivity and time-dependent changes in the chemical composition of the aerosol. Conclusion. Workers need to cautiously apply surface coating products because the contents can be highly toxic through inhalation, and the aerosols can disperse to locations remote from the worksite and affect bystanders.

Pulmonary Toxicity of Perfluorinated Silane-Based Nanofilm Spray Products: Solvent Dependency

A number of cases of pulmonary injury by use of aerosolized surface coating products have been reported worldwide. The aerosol from a commercial alcohol-based nanofilm product (NFP) for coating of nonabsorbing surfaces was found to induce severe lung damage in a recent mouse bioassay. The NFP contained a 1H,1H,2H,2H-perfluorooctyl trialkoxysilane (POTS) and the effects were associated with the hydrolyzed forms of the silane; increase in hydrolyzation resulted in faster induction of compromised breathing and induction of lung damage. In this study, the impact of the solvent on the toxicity of POTS has been investigated. BALB/cA mice were exposed to aerosolized water-based NFPs containing POTS, and solutions of hydrolyzed POTS in methanol, ethanol, and 2-propanol, respectively. No acute respiratory effect was observed at exposure concentrations up to 110 mg/m³ with an aqueous solution of POTS. However, exposure to POTS in methanol resulted in a decrease of the tidal volume--an effect that did not resolve within the recovery period. After 27 min of exposure, the tidal volume had decreased by 25%, indicating partial alveolar collapse. For POTS in ethanol and 2-propanol, a 25% reduction of the tidal volume was observed after 13 and 9 min, respectively; thus, the tidal volume was affected by increase of the chain length. This was confirmed in vitro by investigating lung surfactant function after addition of POTS in different solvents. The addition of vaporized methanol, 2-propanol, or acetone to aerosolized POTS in methanol further exacerbated the tidal volume reduction, demonstrating that the concentration of vaporized solvent participated in the toxicity of POTS.

An in vitro method for predicting inhalation toxicity of impregnation spray products

Impregnation spray products are used for making surfaces water and dirt repellent. The products are composed of one or more active film-forming components dissolved or suspended in an appropriate solvent mixture. Exposure to impregnation spray products may cause respiratory distress and new cases are reported frequently. The toxicity appears to be driven by a disruption of the pulmonary surfactant film, which coats the inside of the lungs. Due to the complex chemistry of impregnation spray products, it is impossible to predict if inhalation of an aerosolized product is toxic in vivo. The aim of this study was to evaluate whether disruption of the pulmonary surfactant film can be used as a predictor of the toxic effects in vivo. Nine impregnation products with various chemical compositions were selected for testing and the main constituents of each product, e.g., solvents, co-solvents and film-forming compounds, were identified by mass spectrometry. We used a capillary surfactometry method to assess disruption of pulmonary surfactant function in vitro and a mouse model to evaluate acute respiratory toxicity during inhalation. Concentration-response relationships were successfully determined both in vitro and in vivo. The true positive rate of the in vitro method was 100%, i.e. the test could correctly identify all products with toxic effects in vivo, the true negative rate was 40%. Investigation of inhibition of the pulmonary surfactant system, e.g. by capillary surfactometry, was found useful for evaluation of the inhalation toxicity of impregnation spray products and thus may reduce the need for animal testing.

Mechanism of Action of Lung Damage Caused by a Nanofilm Spray Product

Inhalation of waterproofing spray products has on several occasions caused lung damage, which in some cases was fatal. The present study aims to elucidate the mechanism of action of a nanofilm spray product, which has been shown to possess unusual toxic effects, including an extremely steep concentration-effect curve. The nanofilm product is intended for application on non-absorbing flooring materials and contains perfluorosiloxane as the active film-forming component. The toxicological effects and their underlying mechanisms of this product were studied using a mouse inhalation model, by in vitro techniques and by identification of the binding interaction. Inhalation of the aerosolized product gave rise to increased airway resistance in the mice, as evident from the decreased expiratory flow rate. The toxic effect of the waterproofing spray product included interaction with the pulmonary surfactants. More specifically, the active film-forming components in the spray product, perfluorinated siloxanes, inhibited the function of the lung surfactant due to non-covalent interaction with surfactant protein B, a component which is crucial for the stability and persistence of the lung surfactant film during respiration. The active film-forming component used in the present spray product is also found in several other products on the market. Hence, it may be expected that these products may have a toxicity similar to the waterproofing product studied here. Elucidation of the toxicological mechanism and identification of toxicological targets are important to perform rational and cost-effective toxicological studies. Thus, because the pulmonary surfactant system appears to be an important toxicological target for waterproofing spray products, study of surfactant inhibition could be included in toxicological assessment of this group of consumer products.

Prediction of acute inhalation toxicity using in vitro lung surfactant inhibition

Private consumers and professionals may experience acute inhalation toxicity after inhaling aerosolized impregnation products. The distinction between toxic and non-toxic products is difficult to make for producers and product users alike, as there is no clearly described relationship between the chemical composition of the products and induction of toxicity. The currently accepted method for determination of acute inhalation toxicity is based on experiments on animals; it is time-consuming, expensive and causes stress for the animals. Impregnation products are present on the market in large numbers and amounts and exhibit great variety. Therefore, an alternative method to screen for acute inhalation toxicity is needed. The aim of our study was to determine if inhibition of lung surfactant by impregnation products in vitro could accurately predict toxicity in vivo in mice. We tested 21 impregnation products using the constant flow through set-up of the constrained drop surfactometer to determine if the products inhibited surfactant function or not. The same products were tested in a mouse inhalation bioassay to determine their toxicity in vivo. The sensitivity was 100%, i.e., the in vitro method predicted all the products that were toxic for mice to inhale. The specificity of the in vitro test was 63%, i.e., the in vitro method found three false positives in the 21 tested products. Six of the products had been involved in accidental human inhalation where they caused acute inhalation toxicity. All of these six products inhibited lung surfactant function in vitro and were toxic to mice.

Bile salt enhancers for inhalation: Correlation between in vitro and in vivo lung effects

Graphical abstract Figure. No Caption available. Abstract The lungs have potential as a means of systemic drug delivery of macromolecules. Systemic delivery requires crossing of the air‐blood barrier, however with molecular size‐dependent limitations in lung absorption of large molecules. Systemic availability after inhalation can be improved by absorption enhancers, such as bile salts. Enhancers may potentially interfere with the different constituents of the lungs, e.g. the lung surfactant lining the alveoli or the lung epithelium. We used two in vitro models to investigate the potential effects of bile salts on lung surfactant function (with the constrained drop surfactometer) and on the epithelium in the proximal airways (with the MucilAir™ cell system), respectively. In addition, we measured direct effects on respiration in mice inhaling bile salt aerosols. The bile salts inhibited lung surfactant function at different dose levels, however they did not affect the integrity of ciliated cells at the tested doses. Furthermore, the bile salt aerosols induced changes in the breathing pattern of mice indicative of pulmonary irritation. The bile salts were ranked according to potency in vitro for surfactant function disruption and in vivo for induction of pulmonary irritation. The ranking was the same, suggesting a correlation between the interference with lung surfactant and the respiratory response.

Toxicity of waterproofing spray products. Elucidation of the mechanism of action

Waterproofing spray products constitute a group of consumer products used to make materials, including textiles, leather, carpets, wood, glass, concrete, masonry and stone waterproof and dirt-repellent. The waterproofing spray products are intended both for industrial and domestic use, wherefore both private and professionals are exposed. During the past decades, inhalation of these products has caused several cases of severe intoxication.