José S. Carrión

Late survival of Neanderthals at the southernmost extreme of Europe

The late survival of archaic hominin populations and their long contemporaneity with modern humans is now clear for southeast Asia. In Europe the extinction of the Neanderthals, firmly associated with Mousterian technology, has received much attention, and evidence of their survival after 35 kyr bp has recently been put in doubt. Here we present data, based on a high-resolution record of human occupation from Gorham’s Cave, Gibraltar, that establish the survival of a population of Neanderthals to 28 kyr bp. These Neanderthals survived in the southernmost point of Europe, within a particular physiographic context, and are the last currently recorded anywhere. Our results show that the Neanderthals survived in isolated refuges well after the arrival of modern humans in Europe.

Crossing forest thresholds: inertia and collapse in a Holocene sequence from south-central Spain

A Holocene palaeoecological sequence from Villaverde, south-central Spain, is presented. The pollen stratigraphy is used to infer past vegetation changes within a catchment area that represents the boundary between semi-arid, plateau and mountain vegetation. From c. 9700-7530 cal. yr BP, Pinus is dominant, probably as a result of a combination of a relatively dry climate and natural fire disturbance. From c. 7530-5900 cal. yr BP, moderate invasion by Quercus appears to be a migrational response following increased moisture and temperature, but in part shaped by competitive adjustments. From c. 5900-5000 cal. yr BP, the pine forests are replaced by deciduous-Quercus forests with an important contribution from Corylus, Betula, Fraxinus and Alnus. Mediterranean-type forests spread from c. 5000 to 1920 cal. yr BP coincident with expansions of Artemisia, Juniperus and other xerophytes. From c. 1920-1160 cal. yr BP, Pinus becomes dominant after a disturbance- mediated invasion of the oak forests. Human impact upon the regional landscape was negligible during the Neolithic, and limited in the Bronze and Iron Ages. Local deforestation and the expansion of agro-pastoral activities occur after c. 1600 cal. yr BP.

The palaeoecoloical potential of pollen records in caves: the case of Mediterranean Spain

Abstract Important palynological sequences are reviewed from caves with archaeological interest in Mediterranean Spain. Upper Pleistocene sites include Abric Romani and Abric de l’Arbreda in NE Spain, and in SE Spain Cueva de la Carihuela, Cova Beneito, Cueva de Perneras, Cueva del Algarrobo and the Holocene Cova de l’Or and Cova de les Cendres. Carihuela has the longest sequence, starting in the last interglacial and covering most of the last glaciation. A pre-Wurm phase was followed by two glacial maxima separated by an interpleniglacial phase, and in the Lateglacial the Younger Dryas seems present. Whereas at Carihuela harsh pleniglacial conditions caused Mediterranean associations to disappear, in the milder surroundings of Beneito and Perneras these were able to survive. At Romani, pollen shows acute palaeoclimatic sensitivity, pointing to upland refuges nearby. Holocene pollen from Cova de l’Or and Cendres underlines the importance of pine in natural woodlands of mature meso and thermomediterranean taxa. Some between-site comparisons and contrasts with modern bioclimatology are interpreted in the context of the palaeoclimate history. Despite taphonomical and methodological problems of cave palynology, its future in arid regions such as SE Spain is promising.

Birds of a Feather: Neanderthal Exploitation of Raptors and Corvids

The hypothesis that Neanderthals exploited birds for the use of their feathers or claws as personal ornaments in symbolic behaviour is revolutionary as it assigns unprecedented cognitive abilities to these hominins. This inference, however, is based on modest faunal samples and thus may not represent a regular or systematic behaviour. Here we address this issue by looking for evidence of such behaviour across a large temporal and geographical framework. Our analyses try to answer four main questions: 1) does a Neanderthal to raptor-corvid connection exist at a large scale, thus avoiding associations that might be regarded as local in space or time?; 2) did Middle (associated with Neanderthals) and Upper Palaeolithic (associated with modern humans) sites contain a greater range of these species than Late Pleistocene paleontological sites?; 3) is there a taphonomic association between Neanderthals and corvids-raptors at Middle Palaeolithic sites on Gibraltar, specifically Gorhams, Vanguard and Ibex Caves? and; 4) was the extraction of wing feathers a local phenomenon exclusive to the Neanderthals at these sites or was it a geographically wider phenomenon?. We compiled a database of 1699 Pleistocene Palearctic sites based on fossil bird sites. We also compiled a taphonomical database from the Middle Palaeolithic assemblages of Gibraltar. We establish a clear, previously unknown and widespread, association between Neanderthals, raptors and corvids. We show that the association involved the direct intervention of Neanderthals on the bones of these birds, which we interpret as evidence of extraction of large flight feathers. The large number of bones, the variety of species processed and the different temporal periods when the behaviour is observed, indicate that this was a systematic, geographically and temporally broad, activity that the Neanderthals undertook. Our results, providing clear evidence that Neanderthal cognitive capacities were comparable to those of Modern Humans, constitute a major advance in the study of human evolution.

A taphonomic study of modern pollen assemblages from dung and surface sediments in arid environments of Spain

Abstract Coastal plant communities in arid southeastern Spain are characterized by insect-pollinated scrub species, which fail to occur in Quaternary pollen sequences from valleys, marshlands and marine cores. We investigate pollen–vegetation relationships in samples from soil surfaces, animal dung, and sediments in depressions or basins that, in theory, should have pollen spectra that are comparable to those from sedimentary basins elsewhere. Pollen spectra from basins or depressions are very susceptible to long-distance wind and water transport. This can mask representation of pollen from the surrounding insect-pollinated vegetation, as can over-representation of basin-margin halophilous and hydrophilous pollen. Pollen spectra from biogenic materials of animal origin are the best analogues of local and regional vegetation, and show the best analytical potential in terms of pollen concentration and taxon diversity. Pollination properties of the species studied indicate they will rarely be found in most conventional pollen records. It cannot be stressed too strongly that insight into Quaternary vegetation of arid regions demands complementary pollen analysis of coprolites, urine-cemented deposits, and cave sediments with preserved biotic remains, in addition to water-lain sediments.

A rock engraving made by Neanderthals in Gibraltar

Significance The production of purposely made painted or engraved designs on cave walls is recognized as a major cognitive step in human evolution, considered exclusive to modern humans. Here we present the first known example of an abstract pattern engraved by Neanderthals, from Gorham’s Cave in Gibraltar. It consists of a deeply impressed cross-hatching carved into the bedrock of the cave older than 39 cal kyr. The engraving was made before the accumulation of Mousterian layer IV. Most of the lines composing the design were made by repeatedly and carefully passing a pointed lithic tool into the grooves, excluding the possibility of an unintentional or utilitarian origin. This discovery demonstrates the Neanderthals’ capacity for abstract thought and expression. The production of purposely made painted or engraved designs on cave walls—a means of recording and transmitting symbolic codes in a durable manner—is recognized as a major cognitive step in human evolution. Considered exclusive to modern humans, this behavior has been used to argue in favor of significant cognitive differences between our direct ancestors and contemporary archaic hominins, including the Neanderthals. Here we present the first known example of an abstract pattern engraved by Neanderthals, from Gorham’s Cave in Gibraltar. It consists of a deeply impressed cross-hatching carved into the bedrock of the cave that has remained covered by an undisturbed archaeological level containing Mousterian artifacts made by Neanderthals and is older than 39 cal kyr BP. Geochemical analysis of the epigenetic coating over the engravings and experimental replication show that the engraving was made before accumulation of the archaeological layers, and that most of the lines composing the design were made by repeatedly and carefully passing a pointed lithic tool into the grooves, excluding the possibility of an unintentional or utilitarian origin (e.g., food or fur processing). This discovery demonstrates the capacity of the Neanderthals for abstract thought and expression through the use of geometric forms.

A Mammalian Lost World in Southwest Europe during the Late Pliocene

Background Over the last decades, there has been an increasing interest on the chronology, distribution and mammal taxonomy (including hominins) related with the faunal turnovers that took place around the Pliocene-Pleistocene transition [ca. 1.8 mega-annum (Ma)] in Europe. However, these turnovers are not fully understood due to: the precarious nature of the periods fossil record; the “non-coexistence” in this record of many of the species involved; and the enormous geographical area encompassed. This palaeontological information gap can now be in part bridged with data from the Fonelas P-1 site (Granada, Spain), whose faunal composition and late Upper Pliocene date shed light on some of the problems concerning the timing and geography of the dispersals. Methodology/Principal Findings This rich fossil site yielded 32 species of mammals, among which autochthonous species of the European Upper Villafranchian coexist with canids (Canis), ovibovines (Praeovibos) and giraffids (Mitilanotherium) from Asia. Typical African species, such as the brown hyena (Hyaena brunnea) and the bush pig (Potamochoerus) are also present. Conclusions/Significance This assemblage is taxonomically and palaeobiogeographically unique, and suggests that fewer dispersal events than was previously thought (possibly only one close to 2.0 Ma) are responsible for the changes seen around 1.9–1.7 Ma ago in the fauna of the two continents.

Pollen analysis of Iron Age cow dung in southern Africa

Thick accumulations of consolidated cow dung occur in ancientkraals (byres or corrals) in the bushveld and highveld areas of Zimbabwe, Botswana, and South Africa dating from the last 2000 years. They originated from long-term cattle herding by Iron Age people. The “vitrified” or baked dung deposits are thought to be a product of the burning of cow dung as fuel, either for domestic purposes or for iron smelting. In order to establish the palaeoecological potential of this material, 36 samples of cow dung from archaeological sites within the present-day savanna and grassland biomes were analyzed for pollen and other microfossils. Of the samples, 29 contained pollen together with other microfossils that support a faecal origin of the material such as sordariaceous ascospores,Thecaphora, Gelasinospora, andChaetomium, and eggs of the intestinal parasiteTrichuris. Similar microfossils were also found in recent fresh cow dung from the same study areas. The presence of pollen grains and spores in most of the Iron Age samples lead to the assumption that they survived the burning because fire temperatures were not high enough to destroy them. Pollen in these cow dung pieces is apparently sealed and can be preserved under open-air conditions at sites under which pollen in other deposits like soils, will decay away. Good pollen preservation and palynomorph diversity were found with mainly Poaceae, and secondly Chenopodiaceae and Cyperaceae as the most important pollen types, while trees and shrubs indicating savanna are rare. In the case of the samples that came from the subtropical savanna biome the latter result is unexpected and suggests that the cattle were kept in more open vegetation than the woody environments of today. Recent cow dung samples reflect the composition of present-day vegetation by showing considerably higher proportions of tree pollen than the fossil assemblages.

Upper Pleistocene palaeoenvironmental change in Eastern Spain: new pollen-analytical data from Cova Beneito (Alicante)

Abstract The results of a palynological investigation of the Upper Palaeolithic interval from the Beneito Cave (southeastern Spain) are herewith considered in the context of results from a previous report on the underlying deposits. Two new percentage and concentration pollen-diagrams with good correspondence are presented. The Upper Palaeolithic sequence is dominated by Poaceae, Chenopodiaceae and Artemisia, whereas arboreal pollen are less important. Mesophilous trees and Mediterranean taxa show a constant presence, but in low proportions. The new data add support to the view that interpleniglacial development of Mediterranean taxa was important in eastern Spain, while they were considerably reduced during upper pleniglacial times. Emphasis is placed on aridity as a limiting factor in influencing major vegetation changes in the area. Two additional topics are also presented: they deal with the extrapolation of north European interstadials to Mediterranean Spain and the palaeoecological value of archaeopalynological records.

A palaeoecological study in the western Mediterranean area. The upper Pleistocene pollen record from Cova Beneito (Alicante, Spain)

Abstract Results are presented of palynological analyses of Pleistocene deposits at Cova Beneito, an archaeological site on the southern slopes of the Sierra de Benicadell, Alicante province (SE Spain), 650 m a.s.l. with a WSW orientation. The chronology is supported by radiocarbon dating, archaeological evolution, previous local sequences, and recourse to several wider correlations. For the first time in the region, a warming event is defined in the mid-last glacial stage. During this event, vegetation took on a Mediterranean character with sclerophyllous elements such as Quercus, Olea, Phillyrea, Rhamnus, Helianthemum , etc. The rest of the sequence shows a predominance of Pinus within the AP, phases of steppe-like character, and an aridity-crisis immediately after the climate improvement. Due to local conditions, forest cover was never very great.