Josef Ecker

The opposing effects of n−3 and n−6 fatty acids

Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) can be classified in n-3 fatty acids and n-6 fatty acids, and in westernized diet the predominant dietary PUFAs are n-6 fatty acids. Both types of fatty acids are precursors of signaling molecules with opposing effects, that modulate membrane microdomain composition, receptor signaling and gene expression. The predominant n-6 fatty acid is arachidonic acid, which is converted to prostaglandins, leukotrienes and other lipoxygenase or cyclooxygenase products. These products are important regulators of cellular functions with inflammatory, atherogenic and prothrombotic effects. Typical n-3 fatty acids are docosahexaenoic acid and eicosapentaenoic acid, which are competitive substrates for the enzymes and products of arachidonic acid metabolism. Docosahexaenoic acid- and eicosapentaenoic acid-derived eicosanoids antagonize the pro-inflammatory effects of n-6 fatty acids. n-3 and n-6 fatty acids are ligands/modulators for the nuclear receptors NFkappaB, PPAR and SREBP-1c, which control various genes of inflammatory signaling and lipid metabolism. n-3 Fatty acids down-regulate inflammatory genes and lipid synthesis, and stimulate fatty acid degradation. In addition, the n-3/n-6 PUFA content of cell and organelle membranes, as well as membrane microdomains strongly influences membrane function and numerous cellular processes such as cell death and survival.

A rapid and quantitative LC-MS/MS method to profile sphingolipids

Sphingolipids comprise a highly diverse and complex class of molecules that serve not only as structural components of membranes but also as signaling molecules. To understand the differential role of sphingolipids in a regulatory network, it is important to use specific and quantitative methods. We developed a novel LC-MS/MS method for the rapid, simultaneous quantification of sphingolipid metabolites, including sphingosine, sphinganine, phyto-sphingosine, di- and trimethyl-sphingosine, sphingosylphosphorylcholine, hexosylceramide, lactosylceramide, ceramide-1-phosphate, and dihydroceramide-1-phosphate. Appropriate internal standards (ISs) were added prior to lipid extraction. In contrast to most published methods based on reversed phase chromatography, we used hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography and achieved good peak shapes, a short analysis time of 4.5 min, and, most importantly, coelution of analytes and their respective ISs. To avoid an overestimation of species concentrations, peak areas were corrected regarding isotopic overlap where necessary. Quantification was achieved by standard addition of naturally occurring sphingolipid species to the sample matrix. The method showed excellent precision, accuracy, detection limits, and robustness. As an example, sphingolipid species were quantified in fibroblasts treated with myriocin or sphingosine-kinase inhibitor. In summary, this method represents a valuable tool to evaluate the role of sphingolipids in the regulation of cell functions.

Induction of fatty acid synthesis is a key requirement for phagocytic differentiation of human monocytes

Monocytes are precursors of macrophages. Here we demonstrate that macrophage colony-stimulating factor (M-CSF)-dependent differentiation of primary human monocytes from healthy volunteers induces transcription of SREBP-1c target genes required for fatty acid (FA) biosynthesis and impairs transcription of SREBP-2 target genes required for cholesterol synthesis. Detailed lipid metabolic profiling showed that this transcriptional regulation leads to a dramatically increased fatty acid synthesis as driving force for enhanced phospholipid synthesis. During cell differentiation the major lipid class switches from cholesterol in monocytes to phosphatidylcholine in macrophages. Ultrastructural analysis revealed that this transcriptional and metabolic regulation is essential for development of macrophage filopodia and cellular organelles including primary lysosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, and Golgi network. Additional functional studies showed that suppression of fatty acid synthesis prevents phagocytosis representing a central macrophage function. Therefore induction of fatty acid synthesis is a key requirement for phagocyte development and function.

A rapid GC–MS method for quantification of positional and geometric isomers of fatty acid methyl esters

So far the most frequently used method for fatty acid (FA) analysis is GC coupled to flame ionization detector (FID). However, GC-FID does not allow profiling of FA synthesis and metabolism using stable isotopes. Here we present a rapid and sensitive GC-MS method for determination of fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs). Fatty acid methylation was carried out by transesterification with acetyl-chloride and methanol. FAME separation applies a short and polar cyano-column resulting in an analysis time of 17.2min. Separation was achieved for positional and geometrical (cis/trans) isomers with chain lengths between C8 and C28. Partial overlap of FAMEs (e.g. for C20:2 (n-6) and C21:0) could be resolved using selected ion monitoring (SIM). The precisions for human plasma samples were better than 10% coefficient of variation (CV) except for very low abundant FAs and LODs were in the low femtomol range on column. The developed GC-MS method also allows quantification of conjugated FAs such as conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) isomers because lowering the derivatization temperature from 95 °C to room temperature prevented cis to trans double bond isomerization. Finally, profiling of fatty acid synthesis and metabolism was exemplified with stable isotope labeling of macrophages using fatty acid precursors or deuterated fatty acids. In summary, we present a fast and robust GC-MS method for fatty acid profiling of positional and geometrical isomers including CLAs as well as very long chain fatty acids (VLCFAs). The method is suitable for both clinical studies and basic research including application of stable isotope compounds.

Mapping ATP-binding cassette transporter gene expression profiles in melanocytes and melanoma cells.

ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters regulate the transport of a variety of physiologic substrates. Moreover, several human ABC proteins are responsible for drug exclusion in compound-treated tumor cells, providing cellular mechanisms for the development of multidrug resistance and, therefore, playing an important role in malignant transformation. As only limited information exists on the role of ABC transporters in melanoma, the aim of the study was to generate a complete expression profile of ABC transporters in this tumor entity. Using a TaqMan low-density array for 47 human ABC transporters, mRNA expression analysis was performed from normal human epidermal melanocytes (NHEM P2 and NHEM P3), nine different cell lines originating from primary melanoma (Mel Ei, Mel Juso, Mel Ho and Mel Wei), and metastases of malignant melanoma (Mel Im, Mel Ju, SK Mel 28, HTZ 19 and HMB2). Cell line-specific expression levels were compared with gene expression in pooled RNA from a variety of other human tissues. High expression levels were detected in pooled tissue RNA as well as in cells of melanocytic origin for ABCA5, ABCB2, ABCB6, ABCD3, ABCD4, ABCF1, ABCF2 and ABCF3, whereas ABCB5 revealed a melanocyte-specific high transcript level. In relation to normal melanocytes, ABCB3, ABCB6, ABCC2, ABCC4, ABCE1 and ABCF2 were significantly increased in melanoma cell lines, whereas ABCA7, ABCA12, ABCB2, ABCB4, ABCB5 and ABCD1 showed lower expression levels. In summary, we present here for the first time an ABC-transporter mRNA expression profile in melanoma in comparison to normal melanocytes. The differentially regulated ABC transporters detected by our approach may be candidate genes involved in melanoma tumorigenesis, progression and therapy resistance and could therefore be of great importance to identify novel options for melanoma therapy.

A simple and robust UPLC-SRM/MS method to quantify urinary eicosanoids

Eicosanoids are key mediators and regulators of inflammation and oxidative stress often used as biomarkers for diseases and pathological conditions such as cardiovascular and pulmonary diseases and cancer. Analytically, comprehensive and robust quantification of different eicosanoid species in a multi-method approach is problematic because most of these compounds are relatively unstable and may differ in their chemical properties. Here we describe a novel ultra-performance liquid chromatography-selected reaction monitoring mass spectroscopy (UPLC-SRM/MS) method for simultaneous quantification of key urinary eicosanoids, including the prostaglandins (PG) tetranor PGE-M, 8-iso-, and 2,3-dinor-8-iso-PGF2α; the thromboxanes (TXs) 11-dehydro- and 2,3-dinor-TXB2; leukotriene E4; and 12-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid. In contrast to previous methods, which used time-consuming and complex solid phase extraction, we prepared samples with a simple liquid/liquid extraction procedure. Because collision-induced dissociation produced characteristic product ions for all analytes, no derivatization step for SRM/MS analysis was necessary. Analytes were separated with a short UPLC reversed-phase column (1.7 µm particles), allowing shorter run times than conventional HPLC columns. The method was validated and applied to human urine samples showing excellent precision, accuracy, detection limits, and robustness. In summary, the developed method allows robust and sensitive profiling of urinary eicosanoid species, making it a useful and valuable tool for biomarker profiling in clinical/toxicological studies.

Application of stable isotopes to investigate the metabolism of fatty acids, glycerophospholipid and sphingolipid species.

Nature provides an enormous diversity of lipid molecules that originate from various pathways. To gain insight into the metabolism and dynamics of lipid species, the application of stable isotope-labeled tracers combined with mass spectrometric analysis represents a perfect tool. This review provides an overview of strategies to track fatty acid, glycerophospholipid, and sphingolipid metabolism. In particular, the selection of stable isotope-labeled precursors and their mass spectrometric analysis is discussed. Furthermore, examples of metabolic studies that were performed in cell culture, animal and clinical experiments are presented.

Metabolic and growth inhibitory effects of conjugated fatty acids in the cell line HT-29 with special regard to the conversion of t11,t13-CLA

Conjugated fatty acids (CFAs) exhibit growth inhibitory effects on colon cancer in vitro and in vivo. To investigate whether the anticancerogenic potency depends on number or configuration of the conjugated double bonds, the effect of conjugated linoleic acid (CLA; C18:2) isomers and conjugated linolenic acid (CLnA; C18:3) isomers on viability and growth of HT-29 cells were compared. Low concentrations of CLnAs (<10μM) yielded a higher degree of inhibitory effects compared to CLAs (40μM). All trans-CFAs were more effective compared to cis/trans-CFAs as follows: t9,t11,t13-CLnA≥c9,t11,t13-CLnA>t11,t13-CLA≥t9,t11-CLA>c9,t11-CLA. The mRNA expression analysis of important genes associated with fatty acid metabolism showed an absence of ∆5-/∆6-desaturases and elongases in HT-29 cells, which was confirmed by fatty acid analysis. Using time- and dose-dependent stimulation experiments several metabolites were determined. Low concentrations of all trans-CFAs (5-20μM) led to dose-dependent increase of conjugated t/t-C16:2 formed by β-oxidation of C18 CFAs, ranging from 1-5% of total FAME. Importantly, it was found that CLnA is converted to CLA and that CLA is inter-converted (t11,t13-CLA is metabolized to c9,t11-CLA) by HT-29 cells. In summary, our study shows that growth inhibition of human cancer cells is associated with a specific cellular transcriptomic and metabolic profile of fatty acid metabolism, which might contribute to the diversified ability of CFAs as anti-cancer compounds.

The conjugated linoleic acid isomer trans-9,trans-11 is a dietary occurring agonist of liver X receptor α.

Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) isomers are dietary fatty acids that modulate gene expression in many cell types. We have previously reported that specifically trans-9,trans-11 (t9,t11)-CLA induces expression of genes involved in lipid metabolism of human macrophages. To elucidate the molecular mechanism underlying this transcriptional activation, we asked whether t9,t11-CLA affects activity of liver X receptor (LXR) alpha, a major regulator of macrophage lipid metabolism. Here we show that t9,t11-CLA is a regulator of LXRalpha. We further demonstrate that the CLA isomer induces expression of direct LXRalpha target genes in human primary macrophages. Knockdown of LXRalpha with RNA interference in THP-1 cells inhibited t9,t11-CLA mediated activation of LXRalpha including its target genes. To evaluate the effective concentration range of t9,t11-CLA, human primary macrophages were treated with various doses of CLA and well known natural and synthetic LXR agonists and mRNA expression of ABCA1 and ABCG1 was analyzed. Incubation of human macrophages with 10 microM t9,t11-CLA led to a significant modulation of ABCA1 and ABCG1 transcription and caused enhanced cholesterol efflux to high density lipoproteins and apolipoprotein AI. In summary, these data show that t9,t11-CLA is an agonist of LXRalpha in human macrophages and that its effects on macrophage lipid metabolism can be attributed to transcriptional regulations associated with this nuclear receptor.

Differential effects of conjugated linoleic acid isomers on macrophage glycerophospholipid metabolism

Conjugated linoleic acids (CLA) are dietary fatty acids. Whereas cis-9,trans-11-(c9,t11)-CLA can be found in meat and dairy products, trans-9,trans-11-(t9,t11)-CLA is a constituent of vegetable oils. Previous studies showed that these two isomers activate different nuclear receptors and, thus, expression of genes related to lipid metabolism. Here we show that these CLA isomers are differentially elongated and desaturated in primary monocyte-derived macrophages isolated from healthy volunteers by using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). We further demonstrate that c9,t11-CLA incorporates in phosphatidylcholine (PC) and phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) species and activates de novo glycerophospholipid synthesis by quantitative electrospray ionization-tandem mass spectrometry (ESI-MS/MS). c9,t11-CLA leads to strong shifts of the species profiles to PC 18:2/18:2 and PE 18:2/18:2, which are due to de novo synthesis and fatty acid remodeling. In contrast, t9,t11-CLA is preferentially bound to neutral lipids, including triglycerides and cholesterol esters. Taken together our results show that c9,t11-CLA and t9,t11-CLA have differential effects on PC and PE metabolism. Moreover, these data demonstrate that the structure of fatty acids not only determines their incorporation into lipid classes but also modulates the kinetics of lipid metabolism, particularly PC synthesis.