Joseph Hughey

Community organizing: An ecological route to empowerment and power

An important contribution to empowerment theory and community psychology practice can be made by examining how the concept of social power is developed and manifested in the context of community organizing. Theory and practice may be further informed through an ecological analysis of organizing processes and interventions. Lessons from a national community organizing network highlight the relationship between empowerment and power through a set of organizing principles and a cycle of organizing activity. Perhaps most important is the understanding that a reciprocal relationship exists between development of power for community organizations and individual empowerment for organization members. Implications for empowerment theory in the community organizing domain are provided in a matrix adapted from Zimmermans description of empowerment processes and outcomes at multiple levels of analysis.

COMMUNITY PSYCHOLOGY PERSPECTIVES ON SOCIAL CAPITAL THEORY AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT PRACTICE

Concepts and research from community psychology can inform community development practice by reframing social capital theory. Social capital (SC) is generally defined and measured at the interpersonal, community, institutional, or societal levels in terms of networks (bridging) and norms of reciprocity and trust (bonding) within those networks. SC should be analyzed in a multi-level ecological framework in terms of both individual psychological and behavioral conceptions (sense of community, collective efficacy—or empowerment, neighboring, and citizen participation) and institutional and community network-level conceptions. Excessive concern for social cohesion undermines the ability to confront or engage in necessary conflict, and thus, it dis-empowers the community. Instead of emphasizing social cohesion, “network-bridging” opportunities to increase power, access, and learning should be emphasized. Institutional and community network analysis shows how SC operates at those levels and where to target service resources and develop mediating structures. Psychological and behavioral factors point to factors that motivate individuals to engage in building SC and methods to maintain and improve that engagement.

Sense of community in community organizations: Structure and evidence of validity

A framework for measuring psychological sense of community for community organizations was presented, and an instrument to measure community organization sense of community was developed. The framework consisted of four components: Relationship to the Organization, Organization as Mediator, Influence of the Community Organization, and Bond to the Community. Two studies examined the dimensionality, reliability, and validity of the instrument. Study 1 (n = 218) was conducted with participants from three community organizations, and it identified four factors, matching the framework, with alpha coefficients from .61 to .85. Study 2 (n = 1,676) was conducted with participants from five community organizations. Study 2 participants were 48% African American, 42% White, 6% Latino/Hispanic, and 3% Other. Also for the Study 2 sample, 69% were female; 31% were male. Study 2 confirmed three factors for the Community Organization Sense of Community scale (COSOC): Relationship to the Organization, Organization as Mediator, Bond to the Community; alpha coefficients ranged from .82 to .87. In three subsamples of Study 2, convergent validity of the instrument was explored by correlating total COSOC scores and subscale scores with two other measures of sense of community, political participation, community involvement, community organization involvement, and perceived safety. The patterns of correlation among the variables indicated, with one exception: strong support for validity of the instrument. Findings are discussed in terms of implications for development of sense of community in community organizations, and community participation.

Tobacco Outlet Density and Demographics at the Tract Level of Analysis in Iowa: Implications for Environmentally Based Prevention Initiatives

This study assessed the geographic association between tobacco outlet density and three demographic correlates—income, race, and ethnicity—at the tract level of analysis for one county in the Midwestern United States. Data for residential census tracts in a Midwestern U.S. county were derived from year 2003 licenses for 474 tobacco outlets. Demographic variables were based on 2000 census data. Census tracts with lower median household income, higher percent of African American residents, and higher percent of Latinos residents had greater density of tobacco selling retail outlets. Areas characterized by lower income and disproportionately more African Americans and Latinos have greater physical access to tobacco products. Physical access to tobacco is a critical public-health issue because, given that smokers have been shown to be price sensitive, lowering access costs (e.g., reduced travel time) is likely to increase consumption. Findings also suggest the need for structural or environmental interventions, i.e., tobacco outlet zoning laws, to mitigate the health consequences associated with tobacco use in certain populations and geographic regions.

ORGANIZING FOR POWER: A COMPARATIVE CASE STUDY

The purpose of this paper is to present a case study of two conceptually similar community organizing efforts that highlights commonalities and important differences. This study first presents a qualitative analysis of two approaches to community organizing for power. Our analysis was made possible by participation and collaboration with members of community organizations which opened the way for access to documents, events, interviews, and settings that formed the basis of our case study. We also present some quantitative data concerning participant perceptions of organizing experiences and outcomes. These data highlight important differences in community organizing approaches, differences we believe can be useful to our field as we struggle with the important concepts of empowerment and power.

Empowerment and Sense of Community: Clarifying Their Relationship in Community Organizations

The research reported here tested the factor structure of a measure for sense of community in community organizations, and it evaluated sense of communitys potential as an empowering organizational characteristic within an organizational empowerment framework. Randomly selected community organization participants (N = 561) were surveyed as part of a study of a substance abuse prevention initiative located in the northeastern United States. Confirmatory factor analysis verified the putative structure of the sense of community measure tailored to community organizations. Hierarchical regression analyses indicated that community organization sense of community significantly predicted intrapersonal empowerment after controlling for demographics, participation, alienation, and other empowering organizational characteristic. Findings imply that organizational sense of community should be considered as an empowering organizational characteristic in community-based health education.

Generalizing the Alcohol Outlet–Assaultive Violence Link: Evidence from a U.S. Midwestern City

This study assessed the geographic association between rates of assaultive violence and alcohol-outlet density in Kansas City, Missouri. Data were obtained for sociodemographic factors, alcohol-outlet density, and rates of assaultive violence across 89 inner-city census tracts in Kansas City, Missouri. Hierarchical regression analysis indicated that sociodemographic variables predicted 61% (R2 = 0.61) of the variance in assaultive violence, but that an additional 9% (R2 = 0.09) of the variability in assaultive violence was explained by the density of alcohol outlets. Alcohol-outlet density contributed significantly to the explained variance of the regression model and was associated with higher rates of assaultive violence in this midwestern city.

In search of community: An analysis of community psychology research from 1984–1988

Analyzed empirical articles (N = 235) in the American Journal of Community Psychology and the Journal of Community Psychology for their methodological structure and contextual influences from 1984-1988. The study focused upon types of research designs, sampling procedures, designs for measurement, dependent variables, characteristics of research participants, author characteristics, and topic areas among other indicators. Analyses were similar to Lounsbury et al. (1980) so that changes over time couM be examined. Findings relative to Lounsbury et al. (1980) include greater numbers of field studies, more correlational approaches, a shift away from research topics on mental health services and programs in favor of studies focused on specific problem areas, and populations drawn increasingly from community settings. Results suggest changes in social context and methodological paradigms influence the conduct of empirical research. Additionally, changes in our research base may reflect changes in the fields understanding of the kinds of research it shouM be pursuing.

School Climate and Adolescent Drug Use: Mediating Effects of Violence Victimization in the Urban High School Context

This study tested the mediating effects of violence victimization in the relationship between school climate and adolescent drug use. The hypothesized path model fit data collected from a probability sample of urban high school students (N=586) participating in an evaluation of a violence prevention program funded by the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Findings indicated that the lack of enforcement of school rules and the presence of unsafe places in and around the school influenced adolescent drug use directly and indirectly through their effects on violence victimization.Editors’ Strategic Implications: This research confirms the importance of the environment as a contributor to violence victimization. Violence victimization is obviously of concern in its own right, but in addition, these data indicate that it also contributes to adolescent drug use. School administrators should be aware that unsafe places in schools and the failure to enforce school rules may affect such victimization and drug use.

Mechanisms of Empowerment: Psychological Processes for Members of Power-based Community Organizations

The paper reports a study of participatory experiences among members of power-based community organizations. A path model of psychological empowerment was tested. Perceived relational characteristics of the community organization were hypothesized as exogenous to participation, perceived organizational power and psychological empowerment. An alternative model was reproduced with the strongest relationships between perceived organizational intimacy and psychological empowerment and an inverse relationship between perceived organizational regulation and perceptions of organizational power.