Joseph L. Fox

Habitat shift and time budget of the Tibetan argali: the influence of livestock grazing

Livestock production is the primary source of livelihood and income in most of the high steppe and alpine regions of the Indian Trans-Himalaya. In some areas, especially those established or proposed for biodiversity conservation, recent increases in populations of domestic livestock, primarily sheep and goats, have raised concern about domestic animals competitively excluding wild herbivores from the rangelands. We evaluated the influence of domestic sheep and goat grazing on the habitat use and time budget of the endangered Tibetan argali Ovis ammon hodgsoni in the proposed Gya-Miru Wildlife Sanctuary, Ladakh, India. We asked if the domestic sheep and goat grazing and collateral human activities relegate the argali to sub-optimal habitats, and alter their foraging time budgets. Data were collected on habitat use and time budget of a population of c. 50 argalis before and after c. 2,000 sheep and goats moved onto their winter pasture in the Tsabra catchment of the aforementioned reserve. Following the introduction of domestic sheep and goats, argalis continued to use the same catchment but shifted to steeper habitats, closer to cliffs, with lower vegetation cover, thus abandoning previously used plant communities with denser cover. Argalis’ active time spent foraging also decreased by 10% in response to the presence of livestock. These results suggest a clear disturbance effect of livestock on argalis, and indicate a potential for competition, conceivably a significant disadvantage for argalis in winter when forage availability is minimal.

The mountain ungulates of Ladakh, India

Eight species of wild ungulates occur in Indias high-elevation steppe and mountain regions of Ladakh, with six listed as endangered and protected in Indias or other international conservation laws. Two species are still quite common, with perhaps 11 000 blue sheep Pseudois nayaur and 6000 Asiatic ibex Capra ibex sibirica present today in Ladakh. Tibetan argali Ovis ammon hodgsoni, severely persecuted in the recent past, are now restricted to a few small populations totalling about 200 individuals in central and eastern Ladakh. The Ladakh urial Ovis vignei vignei, with current estimates of about 1000 in Ladakh, has apparently increased in recent years but is still threatened because its relatively accessible range is highly susceptible to human encroachment. Less than 50 Tibetan gazelle Procapra picticaudata remain in isolated pockets along the high eastern plains and about 200 Tibetan antelope Pantholops hodgsoni are usually present in Ladakh only during summer, wintering in China. The Tibetan wild ass or kiang Equus kiang has apparently recently increased in number, possibly approaching 1500 individuals in central and eastern Ladakh. A population of about 20 wild yak Bos grunniens is reported still to occur in one location along the eastern border with China. Following substantial sport hunting in the early part of this century and large reductions in some populations during border wars from the 1950s to the 1970s, conservation of these species has recently been enhanced by efforts of both the stage government of Jammu and Kashmir and Indias central government, with the planning and initial designation of reserves in the establishment of a system of protected areas in Ladakh.

Habitat segregation between sympatric Tibetan argali Ovis ammon hodgsoni and blue sheep Pseudois nayaur in the Indian Trans‐Himalaya

Tibetan argali Ovis ammon hodgsoni and blue sheep Pseudois nayaur have almost completely overlapping distributions encompassing most of the Tibetan plateau and its margins. Such a sympatric distribution of related species with similar ecological requirements implies that there is some degree of resource partitioning. This may be accomplished on the basis of habitat and/or diet separation. This study evaluated such ecological separation on the basis of physical habitat partitioning by these two sympatric ungulates in Hemis High Altitude National Park, Ladakh, India, in an area where the argali established a small new population in 1978. Such separation was tested for on the basis of expected difference between the species in their proximity to cliffs, associated with species-specific anti-predator behaviour. Tibetan argali selected habitats away from cliffs while blue sheep selected habitats close to cliffs. Blue sheep also selected steep slopes whereas argali selected gentle slopes. The two species did not differ in their use of habitats in terms of elevation. They did, however, differ in their use of plant communities; blue sheep selected sub-shrub and grass-dominated communities whilst argali selected forb-dominated communities. We suggest that the two species coexist in this site as a result of the differential use of habitat associated with their species-specific anti-predator strategies.

Tibetan antelope Pantholops hodgsonii conservation and new rangeland management policies in the western Chang Tang Nature Reserve, Tibet: is fencing creating an impasse?

The north-west Tibetan Plateau in China is cur- rently undergoing development-related changes in land use that illustrate a significant mismatch between national/ international conservation objectives and national livestock and other rangeland development goals for the region. Areas designated as nature reserves are being subjected to the same livestock development policies as elsewhere on the Plateau, including interventions that are detrimental to the supposedly protected wildlife populations. Unintended effects of some livestock development activities, such as the fencing of winter grazing areas and resultant enhancement of illegal hunting, have been little considered in overall development actions inside the nature reserves. We address these issues within the 300,000 km 2 Chang Tang Nature Reserve, covering much of the north-west Plateau, and concentrate on Gertse County in the western part of the Reserve. There are still tens of thousands of Tibetan antelope Pantholops hodgsonii, Tibetan gazelle Procapra picticaudata, kiang Equus kiang and other species in the north-west Chang Tang, and long-distance antelope calv- ing migrations are still relatively intact. However, increas- ing human and livestock populations, new rangeland management initiatives, effects of mining activity and continued hunting have the potential to counter conser- vation initiatives even in the most critical areas for wildlife in the region. Within the nature reserves livestock carrying capacity determinations that allow for wildlife needs and recognize the variable climate are essential. Livestock fencing amenable to wildlife movement, a ban on fencing in areas critical to wildlife, and other actions that mitigate negative effects on wildlife are needed in nature reserves where antelope and other species are still abundant.

Evaluation of line transect sampling for density estimates of chiru Pantholops hodgsoni in the Aru Basin, Tibet

Abstract The chiru or Tibetan antelope Pantholops hodgsoni has dramatically decreased in number over recent decades, and efficient monitoring of the density and distribution of chiru is vital to the management of this endangered species. We evaluated line transect sampling methodology, using track and cross-county transects, and assessed its conformity to underlying assumptions for use in estimating density of chiru in the ca 2,300 km2 Aru Basin, Tibet. Although violations of some assumptions were apparent, they were generally not substantial, and simple adjustments of sampling design can reduce their effects in future surveys. Sampling effort was not sufficient to demonstrate clear seasonal differences in chiru density between summer and autumn. However, cross-country transects on the west side of the study area did show a statistically significant higher autumn than summer density, and encounter rates (the number of detections per km) were significantly higher for both transect types in autumn. We tested for an expected negative bias associated with track transects, and although a clear difference in estimated density was not found, a significantly higher encounter rate was present for cross-country than for track transects. With increased sampling effort and a more effective design in future surveys, line transect sampling will be a useful methodology for assessment of chiru populations.

An assessment of nonequilibrium dynamics in rangelands of the Aru basin, Northwest Tibet, China.

Abstract An assessment of nonequilibrium rangeland dynamics was conducted in the Aru basin, a semiarid site located in the very dry northwest part of the Chang Tang Nature Reserve, Tibet, China. A grazing gradient approach was used to examine the effects of different livestock grazing intensities on vegetation, providing data to determine if plant–herbivore interaction has been a major structuring force of the plant community and thus to indicate what type of dynamic might apply in the study area. No significant differences were found between a highly grazed site and a lightly grazed site in vegetation cover, standing biomass, and Shannon–Wiener species diversity index of total, graminoid, forb, and tomtza (Oxytropis glacialis Benth. ex Bunge) functional groups, with the exception that tomtza coverage was significantly higher at the highly grazed (1.04%) than at the lightly grazed site (0.02%). Grazing intensity alone did not explain a significant amount of variation in the plant species data. These results indicate that a dominance of nonequilibrium dynamics appears to be the case in the basin, probably one of the least-arid sites in the northwest Chang Tang region of the Tibetan Plateau. Thus, opportunistic livestock management strategies adapted to variable vegetation production from year to year, rather than the setting of a rigid stocking rate that assumes a stable carrying capacity, is probably the most plausible approach for managing livestock and its relationship to biodiversity values in this region.

Status and distribution of the Near Threatened Tibetan argali Ovis ammon hodgsoni in Ladakh, India: effect of a hunting ban

The Near Threatened Tibetan argali Ovis ammon hodgsoni is distributed across the Tibetan Plateau and its peripheral mountains. Within India it occurs in Ladakh (Jammu and Kashmir) and Sikkim, and the population was estimated to be c. 200 in the early 1990s. Hunting of the species was banned in Jammu and Kashmir in the 1980s but the effect of this hunting moratorium on the population has not previously been assessed. We conducted surveys in the proposed Gya-Miru Wildlife Sanctuary and the neighbouring Tsokar Basin, areas reported to have a relatively high abundance of argali within Ladakh. We also opportunistically surveyed other areas and collected secondary information about the species? occurrence in other parts of Ladakh. A total of 127 animals were counted during the surveys. Based on this number and other small populations reported earlier by us and others, we estimate a total population of 300?360 argali in Ladakh. Although past population estimates were approximate, the present estimate, which includes areas not previously surveyed, suggests there has been no substantial change in the population of argali in Ladakh since the early 1980s. Factors other than hunting therefore appear to be impeding argali population recovery in this region. Pashmina-producing goats are the most abundant livestock within the argalis range and, owing to the recent increase in demand for this fibre, the goat population is increasing and this may be hindering the recovery of the argali

No longer tracking greenery in high altitudes: Pastoral practices of Rupshu nomads and their implications for biodiversity conservation

Nomadic pastoralism has thrived in Asia’s rangelands for several millennia by tracking seasonal changes in forage productivity and coping with a harsh climate. This pastoralist lifestyle, however, has come under intense transformations in recent decades due to socio-political and land use changes. One example is of the high-altitude trans-Himalayan rangelands of the Jammu and Kashmir State in northern India: major socio-political reorganisation over the last five decades has significantly impacted the traditional pasture use pattern and resources. We outline the organizational transformations and movement patterns of the Rupshu pastoralists who inhabit the region. We demonstrate the changes in terms of intensification of pasture use across the region as well as a social reorganisation due to accommodation of Tibetan refugees following the Sino-Indian war in 1961 to 1962. We focus in particular on the Tso Kar basin - an important socio-ecological system of livestock herding and biodiversity in the eastern Ladakh region. The post-war developmental policies of the government have contributed to these modifications in traditional pasture use and present a threat to the rangelands as well as to the local biodiversity. In the Tso Kar basin, the number of households and livestock has almost doubled while pasture area has declined by half. These changes have potentially negative consequences for the long-term resilience of nomadic pastoralism as well as for the survival of rare local wildlife. To increase the pastoralist standard of living, having fewer pastoralists may be the only solution, and alternative livelihood options may bring this about. Development programmes should concentrate on enhancing opportunities for herders so that there is a greater diversity of employment opportunities and potentially better chances for the persistence of biodiversity.