Joseph W. Matofari

Recommendations for dealing with waste contaminated with Ebola virus: a Hazard Analysis of Critical Control Points approach

Abstract Objective To assess, within communities experiencing Ebola virus outbreaks, the risks associated with the disposal of human waste and to generate recommendations for mitigating such risks. Methods A team with expertise in the Hazard Analysis of Critical Control Points framework identified waste products from the care of individuals with Ebola virus disease and constructed, tested and confirmed flow diagrams showing the creation of such products. After listing potential hazards associated with each step in each flow diagram, the team conducted a hazard analysis, determined critical control points and made recommendations to mitigate the transmission risks at each control point. Findings The collection, transportation, cleaning and shared use of blood-soiled fomites and the shared use of latrines contaminated with blood or bloodied faeces appeared to be associated with particularly high levels of risk of Ebola virus transmission. More moderate levels of risk were associated with the collection and transportation of material contaminated with bodily fluids other than blood, shared use of latrines soiled with such fluids, the cleaning and shared use of fomites soiled with such fluids, and the contamination of the environment during the collection and transportation of blood-contaminated waste. Conclusion The risk of the waste-related transmission of Ebola virus could be reduced by the use of full personal protective equipment, appropriate hand hygiene and an appropriate disinfectant after careful cleaning. Use of the Hazard Analysis of Critical Control Points framework could facilitate rapid responses to outbreaks of emerging infectious disease.

Spontaneously fermented kenyan milk products: A review of the current state and future perspectives

Many spontaneously fermented milk products are produced in Kenya, where they are integral to human diet and play a central role in enhancing food security and income generation. Some of these products have demonstrated therapeutic and probiotic effects although recent reports have linked some to death, biotoxin infections, and esophageal cancer. These products are mostly processed from poor quality raw materials under unhygienic conditions resulting to inconsistent product quality and limited shelf-lives. Though very popular, research on their processing technologies is low. This review provides a comprehensive summary of the most common spontaneously fermented milk products from Kenya including Mursik, Kule naoto, Amabere amaruranu and Suusa. Their production challenges and future perspectives are highlighted; emphasizing the need for application of high throughput biotechnologies in their study. Available literature on their microbiology, biochemistry, and chemical composition is summarized. Moreover, knowledge on the value of clean starting raw material, fermentation parameters definition, and employment of standard equipment are discussed. Key words: Starter culture, probiotics, lactic acid bacteria, fermented milk, high throughput biotechnology, spontaneous fermentation, Kule naoto, Mursik, Amabere amaruranu

Microbial Contamination Level Profiles Attributed to Contamination of Beef Carcasses, Personnel, and Equipment: Case of Small and Medium Enterprise Slaughterhouses

The microbial contamination level profiles (MCLPs) attributed to contamination of beef carcasses, personnel, and equipment in five Kenyan small and medium enterprise slaughterhouses were determined. Aerobic plate counts, Enterobacteriaceae, Staphylococcus, and Salmonella were used to determine contamination at four different slaughter stages, namely, dehiding, evisceration, splitting, and dispatch. Microbiological criteria of the four microorganisms were used to score contamination levels (CLs) as poor (0), poor to average (1), average (2), or good (3). MCLPs were further assigned to carcasses, personnel, and equipment at each stage by summing up the CL scores. The CL score attributed to aerobic plate count contamination was 2 or 3 for carcasses but 0 for personnel and equipment in almost all slaughterhouses. A score of 0 on carcasses was mostly attributed to Enterobacteriaceae at evisceration and to Salmonella at dehiding and evisceration. In addition, a score of 0 was mostly attributed to Staphylococcus contamination of personnel at dehiding. A score of 3 was attributed mostly to Enterobacteriaceae on hands at splitting, whereas a score of 2 was mostly attributed to the clothes at dehiding and evisceration. A CL score of 3 was mostly attributed to Enterobacteriaceae and Salmonella contamination of equipment at dehiding and splitting, respectively. Although CLs attributed to contamination of carcasses, personnel, and equipment ranged from 0 to 3, the maximum MCLP score of 9 was only attained in carcasses from two slaughterhouses at dehiding and from one slaughterhouse at dispatch. There is, therefore, a lot of room for small and medium enterprise slaughterhouses to improve their food safety objectives by improving food safety management systems at the points characterized by low CL scores.

Assessment of sulphonamides and tetracyclines antibiotic residue contaminants in rural and peri urban dairy value chains in Kenya

BackgroundAntibiotic residues are drug substances found in food from plants or animals initially exposed to antibiotics. In animal husbandry antibiotics have widely been used for the treatment of animal diseases. These residues have the ability to expose the public to serious health hazards. In Kenya drug residues have not only been related to lack of withdrawal periods but also to intentional addition to extend milk’s shelf life.ResultsThe aim of this study was to investigate the occurrence of 13 veterinary drugs of tetracyclines and sulphonamides along the dairy sub value chain. The study was carried out in Nakuru County which is the leading milk producer in the country. A total of 229 samples were analysed from rural and 80 samples from peri-urban. These were collected from different nodes of the value chain; the farm, milk transporters and at the bulking centers between January 2014 and November 2015. Screening of samples was done by Charm II Blue -Yellow-test while confirmation was done by HPLC-UV for sulfachloropyradizine (SCL), sulfadiazine (SDZ), sulfadimidine (SMTZ), sulfaquinoxaline (SQ), sulfamerazine (SMR), sulfathiazole (STZ), sulfamethoxazole (SMX), sulfadoxin (SDOX), sulfadimethoxin (SDM), oxytetracycline (OTC), doxycycline hyclate (DC), chlortetracycline hydrochloride (CTC) and tetracycline hydrochloride (TC). In the rural 72 out of 229 (31.4%) samples were positive after screening while none of the samples confirmed the presence of tetracyclines after analysis with HPLC-UV. Sulphonamides confirmed after analysis with HPLC-UV were all above the EU MRL limits. In the peri urban 28.8% (23/80) of the samples were positive for antibiotic residues. Tetracyclines were not detected in confirmation while 60% of the positive samples were positive for sulphonamides out of which 71% were above the regulatory limits. Highest percentage of antibiotics was detected in rural farms (46.7%) and at peri urban bulking centers (50%).ConclusionThe study concluded that antibiotic residues along the dairy value chain are majorly from the farm due to lack of withdrawal periods followed by intentional addition along the value chain. Value chain actors should also be trained on ways of avoiding antibiotic residues from entering the dairy value chain to protect the public from health effects related to antibiotic residues.

Prevalence of bovine and avian tuberculosis in camel herds and associated public health risk factors in Isiolo County, Kenya

A cross-sectional study was conducted among 308 lactating camels selected from 15 herds from three different camel milk clusters in Isiolo County, Kenya, to determine prevalence of bovine and avian tuberculosis using Single Comparative Intradermal Tuberculin Skin test. Seventy-five (75) questionnaires were administered to pastoralists/herders, and focus group discussions were conducted among 3–5 pastoralists/herders selected from each camel herd to collect information on camel husbandry and health management practices and knowledge on tuberculosis in livestock and wildlife. An overall prevalence of bovine and avian reactors was 3.57 and 18.18%, respectively, with bovine and avian reactors for different clusters being 2.38, 3.82, and 4.48% and 25, 17.2, and 11.94%, respectively. There was significant difference (p < 0.05) in prevalence of bovine and avian reactors between different clusters. There was a negative correction (r = −0.1399) between herd size and bovine reactors, while there was a positive correlation (r = 0.0445) between herd size and avian reactors. The respondents indicated that camel herds are exposed to several risk factors like close contact with other herds or livestock or wildlife during grazing and at watering points. Pastoralists have poor knowledge on mode of infection and transmission of bovine or avian tuberculosis. The high prevalence of bovine and avian reactors and pastoralists’ poor knowledge on mode of transmission signify potential risk to public health.

Prevalence of β-haemolytic multi-drug resistant E. coli in cow and camel milk in Kenya

The aim of this study was to find the prevalence of β-haemolytic Escherichia coli in milk, as well as their sources, and their sensitivity to antibiotics. E. coli was isolated from samples of cow and camel milk, cow and camel udder surfaces, and milking persons’ hands. The organisms were identified using API20E biochemical kit. Haemolytic activity was tested on 7% defibrinated sheep blood agar while antibiotic sensitivity was tested using the Kirby-Bauer disc diffusion method. The prevalence of β-haemolytic isolates from cow and camel milk was 25% and 32% respectively. None of the isolates from the udder swabs, the milking persons’ hands, or water was β-haemolytic. In cow milk, the prevalence of isolates resistant to Ampicillin, Cefotaxime, and Cefepime was 25, 37.5 and 12.5% respectively, while in camel milk it was 52.4, 23.8 and 28.6% respectively. Prevalence of β-haemolytic and multidrug resistant isolates to the three antibiotics was 12.5% for cow milk and 19% for camel milk. None of the isolates was resistant to Ciprofloxacin, Piperacillin/Tozobactam, Amikacin, and Imipenem. The prevalence of E. coli resistant to Cefotaxime and Cefepime indicates growing resistance of the microorganisms to drugs that are supposed to be effective against them. The presence of β-haemolytic isolates in milk and their absence on the animals’ udder surface and hand swabs could indicate their better survival in the udder from which they are shed into the milk. This is a public health concern especially for pastoral communities who have a preference for consumption of raw milk.

Targeting caregivers with context specific behavior change training increased uptake of recommended hygiene practices during food preparation and complementary feeding in Dedza district of Central Malawi

ABSTRACT The effect of a targeted training intervention on uptake of recommended hygiene practices by caregivers of children 6–23 months was assessed. A sub-sample of 40 mothers from 303 households was used for a detailed study of hygiene practices during preparation of complementary foods after training. Mothers and caregivers were observed for 6 months and evaluated using a questionnaire. Data were analyzed using SPSS and Chi-square test was used to determine the differences in proportions of mothers and caregivers who adopted recommended practices. Results showed significant increase in the proportions of mothers and caregivers who followed recommended hygiene practices after training. There was significant decrease in prevalence of diarrhea among the children (45% to 8.6%). It can be concluded that targeted training on practical hands-on activities such as hand washing, cleaning of cooking and serving utensils, covering of food and water increase adoption of recommended hygiene and sanitation practices.

Animal Welfare Knowledge, Attitudes, and Practices of Stockpersons in Kenya

ABSTRACT The stockpersons handling the transportation of animals between farms and slaughterhouses are rarely assessed for their animal welfare knowledge, attitudes, and practices (KAP). Thus, this investigation presents a unique opportunity to study these interactions. Herein, a cross-sectional survey was carried out among 266 stockpersons in 10 Kenyan livestock markets to determine their animal welfare KAP. The survey questionnaire was based on Kenya’s Regulations for Animal Transport (Act No: CAP. 360-L.N. 119/1984). Mean percentage scores for knowledge, attitudes, and practices were 78.0 ± 14.1, 75.6 ± 16.0, and 64.5 ± 17.6, respectively. From the responses to statements related to animal husbandry, practices of the housing of unfamiliar groups of animals, cooperation with other stakeholders, and stress caused to animals during handling, it was found that stockpersons’ animal welfare KAP was inadequate. Women aged > 50 years or having more than 10 years of experience had significantly higher levels of animal welfare KAP (p < 0.05). In conclusion, although Kenyan stockpersons may score adequately on the parameters of animal welfare knowledge and attitudes, their followed practices are poor, which may possibly be influenced by gender, age, or level of experience.

Utilization of high acid milk at Rural and Peri-Urban milk value chain systems in Nakuru County, Kenya

Developed acidity in milk, a major proportion of post-harvest losses in smallholder delivered milk at collection centers, results from microbial activity as it is being transported or stored under uncontrolled temperature. The resulting high acid milk is considered of low quality and rejected based on failed alcohol test. The contribution of rejected milk to post-harvest losses is documented however its utilization is not. This study therefore determined this milk’s utilization. Using a semi-structured researcher administered questionnaire, Focus Group Discussions, observation checklist and Key Informant Interviews, data was collected.Results reveal insufficiency of milk quality control at the collection centers. Several volumes of milk failed quality control tests per month resulting to milk postharvest losses. Frequency of milk rejection was higher during rainy season compared to the dry. Naturally fermented milk was the most common product developed from rejected high acid milk. Other farmers mentioned the disposal of this milk while others fed it to animals and/or sold it to neighbours. The study concludes that once safety and physico-chemical quality of high acid milk is determined, appropriate technologies for processing can be used to develop milk products.