Joshua B. Grubbs

Internet Pornography Use: Perceived Addiction, Psychological Distress, and the Validation of a Brief Measure

The authors aimed to validate a brief measure of perceived addiction to Internet pornography refined from the 32-item Cyber Pornography Use Inventory, report its psychometric properties, and examine how the notion of perceived addiction to Internet pornography might be related to other domains of psychological functioning. To accomplish this, 3 studies were conducted using a sample of undergraduate psychology students, a web-based adult sample, and a sample of college students seeking counseling at a universitys counseling center. The authors developed and refined a short 9-item measure of perceived addiction to Internet pornography, confirmed its structure in multiple samples, examined its relatedness to hypersexuality more broadly, and demonstrated that the notion of perceived addiction to Internet pornography is very robustly related to various measures of psychological distress. Furthermore, the relation between psychological distress and the new measure persisted, even when other potential contributors (e.g., neuroticism, self-control, amount of time spent viewing pornography) were controlled for statistically, indicating the clinical relevance of assessing perceived addiction to Internet pornography.

Perceived addiction to Internet pornography and psychological distress: Examining relationships concurrently and over time.

In the United States, Internet pornography use is a common behavior that has risen in popularity in recent years. The present study sought to examine potential relationships between pornography use and well-being, with a particular focus on individual perceptions of pornography use and feelings of addiction. Using a large cross-sectional sample of adults (N = 713), perceived addiction to Internet pornography predicted psychological distress above and beyond pornography use itself and other relevant variables (e.g., socially desirable responding, neuroticism). This model was replicated using a large cross-sectional sample of undergraduates (N = 1,215). Furthermore, a 1-year, longitudinal follow-up with a subset of this sample (N = 106) revealed a relationship between perceived addiction to Internet pornography and psychological distress over time, even when controlling for baseline psychological distress and pornography use. Collectively, these findings suggest that perceived addiction to Internet pornography, but not pornography use itself, is uniquely related to the experience of psychological distress.

Generational and time period differences in American adolescents' religious orientation, 1966-2014.

In four large, nationally representative surveys (N = 11.2 million), American adolescents and emerging adults in the 2010s (Millennials) were significantly less religious than previous generations (Boomers, Generation X) at the same age. The data are from the Monitoring the Future studies of 12th graders (1976–2013), 8th and 10th graders (1991–2013), and the American Freshman survey of entering college students (1966–2014). Although the majority of adolescents and emerging adults are still religiously involved, twice as many 12th graders and college students, and 20%–40% more 8th and 10th graders, never attend religious services. Twice as many 12th graders and entering college students in the 2010s (vs. the 1960s–70s) give their religious affiliation as “none,” as do 40%–50% more 8th and 10th graders. Recent birth cohorts report less approval of religious organizations, are less likely to say that religion is important in their lives, report being less spiritual, and spend less time praying or meditating. Thus, declines in religious orientation reach beyond affiliation to religious participation and religiosity, suggesting a movement toward secularism among a growing minority. The declines are larger among girls, Whites, lower-SES individuals, and in the Northeastern U.S., very small among Blacks, and non-existent among political conservatives. Religious affiliation is lower in years with more income inequality, higher median family income, higher materialism, more positive self-views, and lower social support. Overall, these results suggest that the lower religious orientation of Millennials is due to time period or generation, and not to age.

Seeing God as Cruel or Distant: Links with Divine Struggles Involving Anger, Doubt, and Fear of God's Disapproval

Many people experience what psychologists refer to as divine struggle: struggle focused on ideas about God or a perceived relationship with God. When trying to predict this type of spiritual struggle, it may be useful to consider a persons basic concept of God. We examined two facets of a negative God concept—seeing God as cruel or distant—as potential predictors of divine struggle. We expected that views of God as cruel and distant would correlate highly; however, we also proposed that each view would be especially useful in predicting certain forms of divine struggle. Specifically, we reasoned that seeing God as cruel would be especially useful in predicting anger at God and concern about Gods anger or disapproval toward the self. In contrast, we proposed that seeing God as distant would be especially predictive of doubt about Gods existence. These hypotheses received solid support in web-based studies with two samples (413 undergraduates and a broader sample of 471 U.S. adults).

Associations of Perceived Addiction to Internet Pornography with Religious/Spiritual and Psychological Functioning

ABSTRACT Prior work has shown that religious individuals tend to be critical of Internet pornography (IP). Additionally, people who harbor negative views about their own IP use are more likely to experience psychological distress and religious/spiritual (r/s) struggles. The present research attempted to bring these bodies of research together by examining the relations between engaging with IP (perceived addiction to IP, actual IP use, and moral evaluations of IP), indicators of psychosocial adaptation (self-esteem and state anger), and r/s functioning (religiousness, anger toward God). A study was conducted using a large sample of undergraduate students (N = 1,070) who reported using IP and at least some belief in God. Correlational and network analyses revealed that religiousness was associated with moral disapproval of IP and perceived addiction to IP. Perceived addiction to IP (rather than actual IP use) was related to lower self-esteem, more anger, and more anger directed toward God. This study provides a partial psychological and r/s profile of college students varying in the degree to which they perceive themselves as addicted to IP. Potential clinical implications of these findings are discussed.

Perceived Addiction to Internet Pornography among Religious Believers and Nonbelievers

abstract Prior research suggests that there is a relationship between religiousness and perceived addiction to Internet pornography. This research also suggests a positive relationship between perceived addiction and psychological distress. However, due to the measures of religiousness used, little is known about perceived addiction among nonbelievers in Gods existence. In a sample of U.S. adults (N = 713), we found that higher certainty in Gods existence was associated with higher levels of perceived addiction. We also found that participants who identified as religious, compared to participants who self-labeled as atheist, agnostic, or “none,” reported higher levels of perceived addiction. Finally, we found that perceived addiction was associated with psychological distress (combining anxiety, depression, and general stress), though effect sizes were small. This relationship was not moderated by religious/nonreligious identity or certainty in Gods existence/nonexistence. These findings suggest that perceived addiction to Internet pornography may be a mild risk factor for increased general psychological distress in both believers and nonbelievers, though lower levels of perceived addiction suggest that nonbelievers may be less likely overall to experience psychological distress related to perceived addiction.

Self-Forgiveness and Hypersexual Behavior

Although initial research on treatment for hypersexual behavior has had promising results, there has been little work that explicates the theoretical rationale for various treatment strategies. Self-forgiveness may be one strategy to help individuals with hypersexual behavior work through maladaptive shame and guilt. The present study explored the role of self-forgiveness in hypersexual behavior. Participants (N = 187) reported a time in which they had violated their sexual values and completed measures of self-forgiveness, shame/guilt, and hypersexual behavior. Self-forgiveness was negatively related to hypersexual behavior. Self-forgiveness was also negatively related to shame/guilt. The association between self-forgiveness and hypersexual behavior was mediated by shame/guilt.

Humbling Yourself before God: Humility as a Reliable Predictor of Lower Divine Struggle

Personality factors such as low agreeableness and psychological entitlement are often highly predictive of spiritual struggle. Our aim was to examine trait humility as a potential predictor of lower levels of divine struggles—struggles focused on emotions or ideas about God. Specifically, we proposed that humility would correlate negatively with two forms of divine struggle: anger at God and religious fear and guilt. To test these hypotheses, we conducted a cross-sectional analysis with undergraduates (160 men, 152 women). Results indicated that humility was indeed negatively related to both forms of divine struggle. For anger at God, both in general and in reaction to a specific event, these findings were very robust, maintaining significance even when other related personality factors (e.g., psychological entitlement, agreeableness, trait anger) were held constant. For religious fear and guilt, humility was only marginally significant when controlling for such variables. In sum, humility does appear to function as a trait-level negative predictor of divine struggles.

If I Tell Others about My Anger toward God, How Will They Respond? Predictors, Associated Behaviors, and Outcomes in an Adult Sample

When people experience anger or other negative feelings toward God, do they admit these emotions to others? Participants in an internet survey (n = 471; mean age 41.7) described an incident involving suffering and their responses. Among those reporting negative feelings toward God (n = 256), those who had stronger negative feelings and saw such feelings as morally acceptable were more likely to disclose their feelings to others. Supportive responses to disclosure predominated over unsupportive responses. Yet about half of participants reported some unsupportive responses, including indications that such feelings were wrong or responses that made participants feel judged, guilty, or ashamed. To the extent that participants saw others’ responses as supportive, they reported greater spiritual engagement. In contrast, reports of unsupportive responses were linked with continued anger toward God, more suppression attempts and exit behaviors (e.g., rebellion; rejecting God; doubting Gods existence), and greater substance use.

Moral Incongruence and Pornography Use: A Critical Review and Integration

Internet pornography use (IPU) remains a controversial topic within sexual behavior research fields. Whereas some people report feeling dysregulated in their use of pornography, mental health and medical communities are divided as to whether IPU can be addictive. The present review sought to examine this issue more closely, with a focus on how variables other than pornography use, such as moral disapproval and moral incongruence (i.e., feeling as if one’s behaviors and one’s values about those behaviors are misaligned), might specifically contribute to self-perceived problems around pornography use. Through an examination of recent literature, the present work reviews evidence that moral incongruence about IPU is a common phenomenon and that it is associated with outcomes relevant to current debates about pornography addiction. Specifically, moral incongruence regarding IPU appears to be associated with greater distress about IPU, greater psychological distress in general, greater reports of problems related to IPU, and greater reports of perceived addiction to IPU. The implications of this body of evidence for both clinical and research communities are discussed, and future directions for research are considered.