Joshua J. Millspaugh

THE APPLICATION OF DISCRETE CHOICE MODELS TO WILDLIFE RESOURCE SELECTION STUDIES

This paper introduces the theory and application of discrete choice models to resource selection studies. Discrete choice models calculate the probability of an individual selecting a resource as a function of the attributes of that resource and all other available resources. The data for these attributes may be continuous or categorical. When availability is the same for all individuals and only two resources are available, the multinomial logit discrete choice model reduces to the logistic model. Discrete choice models and advances in GIS technology give the researcher flexibility in defining resource availability separately for each individual over time and space. The output of the discrete choice approach also provides managers with a tool to explore the effects of potential management actions and provides researchers with new hypotheses deserving of further investigation. To illustrate the application of discrete choice models to resource selection studies, we present a case study of summer diurnal bed site selection by elk (Cervus elaphus) in Custer State Park, South Dakota, United States. The results demonstrate the importance of factors relating to thermal regulation, hiding cover, and potentially forage, in elk bed site selection in this region.

Design and analysis of long-term ecological monitoring studies

List of contributors Foreword Preface Acknowledgements Part I. Overview: 1. Ecological monitoring: the heart of the matter Robert A. Gitzen and Joshua J. Millspaugh 2. An overview of statistical considerations in long-term monitoring Joel H. Reynolds 3. Monitoring (that) matters Douglas H. Johnson 4. Maximizing the utility of monitoring to the adaptive management of natural resources William L. Kendall and Clinton T. Moore Part II. Survey Design: 5. Spatial sampling designs for long-term ecological monitoring Trent McDonald 6. Spatially balanced survey designs for natural resources Anthony R. Olsen, Thomas M. Kincaid and Quinn Payton 7. The role of monitoring design in detecting trend in long-term ecological monitoring studies N. Scott Urquhart 8. Estimating variance components and related parameters when planning long-term monitoring programs John R. Skalski 9. Variance components estimation for continuous and discrete data, with emphasis on cross-classified sampling designs Brian R. Gray 10. Simulating future uncertainty to guide the selection of survey designs for long-term monitoring Steven L. Garman, E. William Schweiger and Daniel J. Manier Part III. Data Analysis: 11. Analysis options for estimating status and trends in long-term monitoring Jonathan Bart and Hawthorne L. Beyer 12. Analytical options for estimating ecological thresholds - statistical considerations Song S. Qian 13. The treatment of missing data in long-term monitoring programs Douglas H. Johnson and Michael B. Soma 14. Survey analysis in natural resource monitoring programs with a focus on cumulative distribution functions Thomas M. Kincaid and Anthony R. Olsen 15. Structural equation modeling and the analysis of long-term monitoring data James B. Grace, Jon E. Keeley, Darren J. Johnson and Kenneth A. Bollen Part IV. Advanced Issues and Applications: 16. GRTS and graphs: monitoring natural resources in urban landscapes Todd R. Lookingbill, John Paul Schmit and Shawn L. Carter 17. Incorporating predicted species distribution in adaptive and conventional sampling designs David R. Smith, Lei Yuancai, Christopher A. Walter and John A. Young 18. Study design and analysis options for demographic and species occurrence dynamics Darryl I. MacKenzie 19. Dealing with incomplete and variable detectability in multi-year, multi-site monitoring of ecological populations Sarah J. Converse and J. Andrew Royle 20. Optimal spatio-temporal monitoring designs for characterizing population trends Mevin B. Hooten, Beth E. Ross and Christopher K. Wikle 21. Use of citizen-science monitoring for pattern discovery and biological inference Wesley M. Hochachka, Daniel Fink and Benjamin Zuckerberg Part V. Conclusion: 22. Institutionalizing an effective long-term monitoring program in the US National Park Service Steven G. Fancy and Robert E. Bennetts 23. Choosing among long-term ecological monitoring programs and knowing when to stop Hugh P. Possingham, Richard A. Fuller and Liana N. Joseph References Index.

Summer Bed Sites of Elk (Cervus elaphus) in the Black Hills, South Dakota: Considerations for Thermal Cover Management

Abstract We characterized 131 summer, diurnal bed sites of 26 elk (11 bulls and 15 cows) in Custer State Park, South Dakota, from 5 June–30 August 1994, 1995 and 1996. Overstory canopy closure, number and basal area of trees, percent litter and bare ground were greater (P < 0.05) at bed sites than at random plots. North aspects were selected (P < 0.05). Microsite air temperature and percent of grass were lower (P < 0.05) at bed sites than at random plots. Hiding cover, wind speed, percent of forbs, shrubs, rocks, and wood, slope percent, average tree dbh, elevation, distance to roads, distance to trails, and distance to water were not different between bed sites and random plots (P > 0.05). Trees were present at 128/131 (97.7%) of bed sites (0.01 ha square plot), but occurred on only 41.2% (54/131) of random plots. An average summer, diurnal elk bed site had basal area >12.4 m2/ha, >110 trees/ha, >54% canopy closure on N aspects. Overstory canopy closure, tree basal area and microsite temperature correctly classified 86.2% of the observations, suggesting thermoregulatory factors influenced CSP elk use of summer, diurnal bed sites. Although elk are successful in some unforested areas despite the lack of suitable thermal cover, our data suggest that elk in the Black Hills prefer relief sites that provide thermal bed sites when available during the summer diurnal period. Management of appropriate thermal cover should be maintained in areas in which it exists.

Design and Analysis of Long-term Ecological Monitoring Studies: Acknowledgments

List of contributors Foreword Preface Acknowledgements Part I. Overview: 1. Ecological monitoring: the heart of the matter Robert A. Gitzen and Joshua J. Millspaugh 2. An overview of statistical considerations in long-term monitoring Joel H. Reynolds 3. Monitoring (that) matters Douglas H. Johnson 4. Maximizing the utility of monitoring to the adaptive management of natural resources William L. Kendall and Clinton T. Moore Part II. Survey Design: 5. Spatial sampling designs for long-term ecological monitoring Trent McDonald 6. Spatially balanced survey designs for natural resources Anthony R. Olsen, Thomas M. Kincaid and Quinn Payton 7. The role of monitoring design in detecting trend in long-term ecological monitoring studies N. Scott Urquhart 8. Estimating variance components and related parameters when planning long-term monitoring programs John R. Skalski 9. Variance components estimation for continuous and discrete data, with emphasis on cross-classified sampling designs Brian R. Gray 10. Simulating future uncertainty to guide the selection of survey designs for long-term monitoring Steven L. Garman, E. William Schweiger and Daniel J. Manier Part III. Data Analysis: 11. Analysis options for estimating status and trends in long-term monitoring Jonathan Bart and Hawthorne L. Beyer 12. Analytical options for estimating ecological thresholds - statistical considerations Song S. Qian 13. The treatment of missing data in long-term monitoring programs Douglas H. Johnson and Michael B. Soma 14. Survey analysis in natural resource monitoring programs with a focus on cumulative distribution functions Thomas M. Kincaid and Anthony R. Olsen 15. Structural equation modeling and the analysis of long-term monitoring data James B. Grace, Jon E. Keeley, Darren J. Johnson and Kenneth A. Bollen Part IV. Advanced Issues and Applications: 16. GRTS and graphs: monitoring natural resources in urban landscapes Todd R. Lookingbill, John Paul Schmit and Shawn L. Carter 17. Incorporating predicted species distribution in adaptive and conventional sampling designs David R. Smith, Lei Yuancai, Christopher A. Walter and John A. Young 18. Study design and analysis options for demographic and species occurrence dynamics Darryl I. MacKenzie 19. Dealing with incomplete and variable detectability in multi-year, multi-site monitoring of ecological populations Sarah J. Converse and J. Andrew Royle 20. Optimal spatio-temporal monitoring designs for characterizing population trends Mevin B. Hooten, Beth E. Ross and Christopher K. Wikle 21. Use of citizen-science monitoring for pattern discovery and biological inference Wesley M. Hochachka, Daniel Fink and Benjamin Zuckerberg Part V. Conclusion: 22. Institutionalizing an effective long-term monitoring program in the US National Park Service Steven G. Fancy and Robert E. Bennetts 23. Choosing among long-term ecological monitoring programs and knowing when to stop Hugh P. Possingham, Richard A. Fuller and Liana N. Joseph References Index.

Design and Analysis of Long-term Ecological Monitoring Studies: List of contributors

List of contributors Foreword Preface Acknowledgements Part I. Overview: 1. Ecological monitoring: the heart of the matter Robert A. Gitzen and Joshua J. Millspaugh 2. An overview of statistical considerations in long-term monitoring Joel H. Reynolds 3. Monitoring (that) matters Douglas H. Johnson 4. Maximizing the utility of monitoring to the adaptive management of natural resources William L. Kendall and Clinton T. Moore Part II. Survey Design: 5. Spatial sampling designs for long-term ecological monitoring Trent McDonald 6. Spatially balanced survey designs for natural resources Anthony R. Olsen, Thomas M. Kincaid and Quinn Payton 7. The role of monitoring design in detecting trend in long-term ecological monitoring studies N. Scott Urquhart 8. Estimating variance components and related parameters when planning long-term monitoring programs John R. Skalski 9. Variance components estimation for continuous and discrete data, with emphasis on cross-classified sampling designs Brian R. Gray 10. Simulating future uncertainty to guide the selection of survey designs for long-term monitoring Steven L. Garman, E. William Schweiger and Daniel J. Manier Part III. Data Analysis: 11. Analysis options for estimating status and trends in long-term monitoring Jonathan Bart and Hawthorne L. Beyer 12. Analytical options for estimating ecological thresholds - statistical considerations Song S. Qian 13. The treatment of missing data in long-term monitoring programs Douglas H. Johnson and Michael B. Soma 14. Survey analysis in natural resource monitoring programs with a focus on cumulative distribution functions Thomas M. Kincaid and Anthony R. Olsen 15. Structural equation modeling and the analysis of long-term monitoring data James B. Grace, Jon E. Keeley, Darren J. Johnson and Kenneth A. Bollen Part IV. Advanced Issues and Applications: 16. GRTS and graphs: monitoring natural resources in urban landscapes Todd R. Lookingbill, John Paul Schmit and Shawn L. Carter 17. Incorporating predicted species distribution in adaptive and conventional sampling designs David R. Smith, Lei Yuancai, Christopher A. Walter and John A. Young 18. Study design and analysis options for demographic and species occurrence dynamics Darryl I. MacKenzie 19. Dealing with incomplete and variable detectability in multi-year, multi-site monitoring of ecological populations Sarah J. Converse and J. Andrew Royle 20. Optimal spatio-temporal monitoring designs for characterizing population trends Mevin B. Hooten, Beth E. Ross and Christopher K. Wikle 21. Use of citizen-science monitoring for pattern discovery and biological inference Wesley M. Hochachka, Daniel Fink and Benjamin Zuckerberg Part V. Conclusion: 22. Institutionalizing an effective long-term monitoring program in the US National Park Service Steven G. Fancy and Robert E. Bennetts 23. Choosing among long-term ecological monitoring programs and knowing when to stop Hugh P. Possingham, Richard A. Fuller and Liana N. Joseph References Index.

Design and Analysis of Long-term Ecological Monitoring Studies: Contents

List of contributors Foreword Preface Acknowledgements Part I. Overview: 1. Ecological monitoring: the heart of the matter Robert A. Gitzen and Joshua J. Millspaugh 2. An overview of statistical considerations in long-term monitoring Joel H. Reynolds 3. Monitoring (that) matters Douglas H. Johnson 4. Maximizing the utility of monitoring to the adaptive management of natural resources William L. Kendall and Clinton T. Moore Part II. Survey Design: 5. Spatial sampling designs for long-term ecological monitoring Trent McDonald 6. Spatially balanced survey designs for natural resources Anthony R. Olsen, Thomas M. Kincaid and Quinn Payton 7. The role of monitoring design in detecting trend in long-term ecological monitoring studies N. Scott Urquhart 8. Estimating variance components and related parameters when planning long-term monitoring programs John R. Skalski 9. Variance components estimation for continuous and discrete data, with emphasis on cross-classified sampling designs Brian R. Gray 10. Simulating future uncertainty to guide the selection of survey designs for long-term monitoring Steven L. Garman, E. William Schweiger and Daniel J. Manier Part III. Data Analysis: 11. Analysis options for estimating status and trends in long-term monitoring Jonathan Bart and Hawthorne L. Beyer 12. Analytical options for estimating ecological thresholds - statistical considerations Song S. Qian 13. The treatment of missing data in long-term monitoring programs Douglas H. Johnson and Michael B. Soma 14. Survey analysis in natural resource monitoring programs with a focus on cumulative distribution functions Thomas M. Kincaid and Anthony R. Olsen 15. Structural equation modeling and the analysis of long-term monitoring data James B. Grace, Jon E. Keeley, Darren J. Johnson and Kenneth A. Bollen Part IV. Advanced Issues and Applications: 16. GRTS and graphs: monitoring natural resources in urban landscapes Todd R. Lookingbill, John Paul Schmit and Shawn L. Carter 17. Incorporating predicted species distribution in adaptive and conventional sampling designs David R. Smith, Lei Yuancai, Christopher A. Walter and John A. Young 18. Study design and analysis options for demographic and species occurrence dynamics Darryl I. MacKenzie 19. Dealing with incomplete and variable detectability in multi-year, multi-site monitoring of ecological populations Sarah J. Converse and J. Andrew Royle 20. Optimal spatio-temporal monitoring designs for characterizing population trends Mevin B. Hooten, Beth E. Ross and Christopher K. Wikle 21. Use of citizen-science monitoring for pattern discovery and biological inference Wesley M. Hochachka, Daniel Fink and Benjamin Zuckerberg Part V. Conclusion: 22. Institutionalizing an effective long-term monitoring program in the US National Park Service Steven G. Fancy and Robert E. Bennetts 23. Choosing among long-term ecological monitoring programs and knowing when to stop Hugh P. Possingham, Richard A. Fuller and Liana N. Joseph References Index.

Design and Analysis of Long-term Ecological Monitoring Studies: Index

List of contributors Foreword Preface Acknowledgements Part I. Overview: 1. Ecological monitoring: the heart of the matter Robert A. Gitzen and Joshua J. Millspaugh 2. An overview of statistical considerations in long-term monitoring Joel H. Reynolds 3. Monitoring (that) matters Douglas H. Johnson 4. Maximizing the utility of monitoring to the adaptive management of natural resources William L. Kendall and Clinton T. Moore Part II. Survey Design: 5. Spatial sampling designs for long-term ecological monitoring Trent McDonald 6. Spatially balanced survey designs for natural resources Anthony R. Olsen, Thomas M. Kincaid and Quinn Payton 7. The role of monitoring design in detecting trend in long-term ecological monitoring studies N. Scott Urquhart 8. Estimating variance components and related parameters when planning long-term monitoring programs John R. Skalski 9. Variance components estimation for continuous and discrete data, with emphasis on cross-classified sampling designs Brian R. Gray 10. Simulating future uncertainty to guide the selection of survey designs for long-term monitoring Steven L. Garman, E. William Schweiger and Daniel J. Manier Part III. Data Analysis: 11. Analysis options for estimating status and trends in long-term monitoring Jonathan Bart and Hawthorne L. Beyer 12. Analytical options for estimating ecological thresholds - statistical considerations Song S. Qian 13. The treatment of missing data in long-term monitoring programs Douglas H. Johnson and Michael B. Soma 14. Survey analysis in natural resource monitoring programs with a focus on cumulative distribution functions Thomas M. Kincaid and Anthony R. Olsen 15. Structural equation modeling and the analysis of long-term monitoring data James B. Grace, Jon E. Keeley, Darren J. Johnson and Kenneth A. Bollen Part IV. Advanced Issues and Applications: 16. GRTS and graphs: monitoring natural resources in urban landscapes Todd R. Lookingbill, John Paul Schmit and Shawn L. Carter 17. Incorporating predicted species distribution in adaptive and conventional sampling designs David R. Smith, Lei Yuancai, Christopher A. Walter and John A. Young 18. Study design and analysis options for demographic and species occurrence dynamics Darryl I. MacKenzie 19. Dealing with incomplete and variable detectability in multi-year, multi-site monitoring of ecological populations Sarah J. Converse and J. Andrew Royle 20. Optimal spatio-temporal monitoring designs for characterizing population trends Mevin B. Hooten, Beth E. Ross and Christopher K. Wikle 21. Use of citizen-science monitoring for pattern discovery and biological inference Wesley M. Hochachka, Daniel Fink and Benjamin Zuckerberg Part V. Conclusion: 22. Institutionalizing an effective long-term monitoring program in the US National Park Service Steven G. Fancy and Robert E. Bennetts 23. Choosing among long-term ecological monitoring programs and knowing when to stop Hugh P. Possingham, Richard A. Fuller and Liana N. Joseph References Index.

Design and Analysis of Long-term Ecological Monitoring Studies: Abbreviations

List of contributors Foreword Preface Acknowledgements Part I. Overview: 1. Ecological monitoring: the heart of the matter Robert A. Gitzen and Joshua J. Millspaugh 2. An overview of statistical considerations in long-term monitoring Joel H. Reynolds 3. Monitoring (that) matters Douglas H. Johnson 4. Maximizing the utility of monitoring to the adaptive management of natural resources William L. Kendall and Clinton T. Moore Part II. Survey Design: 5. Spatial sampling designs for long-term ecological monitoring Trent McDonald 6. Spatially balanced survey designs for natural resources Anthony R. Olsen, Thomas M. Kincaid and Quinn Payton 7. The role of monitoring design in detecting trend in long-term ecological monitoring studies N. Scott Urquhart 8. Estimating variance components and related parameters when planning long-term monitoring programs John R. Skalski 9. Variance components estimation for continuous and discrete data, with emphasis on cross-classified sampling designs Brian R. Gray 10. Simulating future uncertainty to guide the selection of survey designs for long-term monitoring Steven L. Garman, E. William Schweiger and Daniel J. Manier Part III. Data Analysis: 11. Analysis options for estimating status and trends in long-term monitoring Jonathan Bart and Hawthorne L. Beyer 12. Analytical options for estimating ecological thresholds - statistical considerations Song S. Qian 13. The treatment of missing data in long-term monitoring programs Douglas H. Johnson and Michael B. Soma 14. Survey analysis in natural resource monitoring programs with a focus on cumulative distribution functions Thomas M. Kincaid and Anthony R. Olsen 15. Structural equation modeling and the analysis of long-term monitoring data James B. Grace, Jon E. Keeley, Darren J. Johnson and Kenneth A. Bollen Part IV. Advanced Issues and Applications: 16. GRTS and graphs: monitoring natural resources in urban landscapes Todd R. Lookingbill, John Paul Schmit and Shawn L. Carter 17. Incorporating predicted species distribution in adaptive and conventional sampling designs David R. Smith, Lei Yuancai, Christopher A. Walter and John A. Young 18. Study design and analysis options for demographic and species occurrence dynamics Darryl I. MacKenzie 19. Dealing with incomplete and variable detectability in multi-year, multi-site monitoring of ecological populations Sarah J. Converse and J. Andrew Royle 20. Optimal spatio-temporal monitoring designs for characterizing population trends Mevin B. Hooten, Beth E. Ross and Christopher K. Wikle 21. Use of citizen-science monitoring for pattern discovery and biological inference Wesley M. Hochachka, Daniel Fink and Benjamin Zuckerberg Part V. Conclusion: 22. Institutionalizing an effective long-term monitoring program in the US National Park Service Steven G. Fancy and Robert E. Bennetts 23. Choosing among long-term ecological monitoring programs and knowing when to stop Hugh P. Possingham, Richard A. Fuller and Liana N. Joseph References Index.

Design and Analysis of Long-term Ecological Monitoring Studies: Overview

List of contributors Foreword Preface Acknowledgements Part I. Overview: 1. Ecological monitoring: the heart of the matter Robert A. Gitzen and Joshua J. Millspaugh 2. An overview of statistical considerations in long-term monitoring Joel H. Reynolds 3. Monitoring (that) matters Douglas H. Johnson 4. Maximizing the utility of monitoring to the adaptive management of natural resources William L. Kendall and Clinton T. Moore Part II. Survey Design: 5. Spatial sampling designs for long-term ecological monitoring Trent McDonald 6. Spatially balanced survey designs for natural resources Anthony R. Olsen, Thomas M. Kincaid and Quinn Payton 7. The role of monitoring design in detecting trend in long-term ecological monitoring studies N. Scott Urquhart 8. Estimating variance components and related parameters when planning long-term monitoring programs John R. Skalski 9. Variance components estimation for continuous and discrete data, with emphasis on cross-classified sampling designs Brian R. Gray 10. Simulating future uncertainty to guide the selection of survey designs for long-term monitoring Steven L. Garman, E. William Schweiger and Daniel J. Manier Part III. Data Analysis: 11. Analysis options for estimating status and trends in long-term monitoring Jonathan Bart and Hawthorne L. Beyer 12. Analytical options for estimating ecological thresholds - statistical considerations Song S. Qian 13. The treatment of missing data in long-term monitoring programs Douglas H. Johnson and Michael B. Soma 14. Survey analysis in natural resource monitoring programs with a focus on cumulative distribution functions Thomas M. Kincaid and Anthony R. Olsen 15. Structural equation modeling and the analysis of long-term monitoring data James B. Grace, Jon E. Keeley, Darren J. Johnson and Kenneth A. Bollen Part IV. Advanced Issues and Applications: 16. GRTS and graphs: monitoring natural resources in urban landscapes Todd R. Lookingbill, John Paul Schmit and Shawn L. Carter 17. Incorporating predicted species distribution in adaptive and conventional sampling designs David R. Smith, Lei Yuancai, Christopher A. Walter and John A. Young 18. Study design and analysis options for demographic and species occurrence dynamics Darryl I. MacKenzie 19. Dealing with incomplete and variable detectability in multi-year, multi-site monitoring of ecological populations Sarah J. Converse and J. Andrew Royle 20. Optimal spatio-temporal monitoring designs for characterizing population trends Mevin B. Hooten, Beth E. Ross and Christopher K. Wikle 21. Use of citizen-science monitoring for pattern discovery and biological inference Wesley M. Hochachka, Daniel Fink and Benjamin Zuckerberg Part V. Conclusion: 22. Institutionalizing an effective long-term monitoring program in the US National Park Service Steven G. Fancy and Robert E. Bennetts 23. Choosing among long-term ecological monitoring programs and knowing when to stop Hugh P. Possingham, Richard A. Fuller and Liana N. Joseph References Index.

Design and Analysis of Long-term Ecological Monitoring Studies: Frontmatter

List of contributors Foreword Preface Acknowledgements Part I. Overview: 1. Ecological monitoring: the heart of the matter Robert A. Gitzen and Joshua J. Millspaugh 2. An overview of statistical considerations in long-term monitoring Joel H. Reynolds 3. Monitoring (that) matters Douglas H. Johnson 4. Maximizing the utility of monitoring to the adaptive management of natural resources William L. Kendall and Clinton T. Moore Part II. Survey Design: 5. Spatial sampling designs for long-term ecological monitoring Trent McDonald 6. Spatially balanced survey designs for natural resources Anthony R. Olsen, Thomas M. Kincaid and Quinn Payton 7. The role of monitoring design in detecting trend in long-term ecological monitoring studies N. Scott Urquhart 8. Estimating variance components and related parameters when planning long-term monitoring programs John R. Skalski 9. Variance components estimation for continuous and discrete data, with emphasis on cross-classified sampling designs Brian R. Gray 10. Simulating future uncertainty to guide the selection of survey designs for long-term monitoring Steven L. Garman, E. William Schweiger and Daniel J. Manier Part III. Data Analysis: 11. Analysis options for estimating status and trends in long-term monitoring Jonathan Bart and Hawthorne L. Beyer 12. Analytical options for estimating ecological thresholds - statistical considerations Song S. Qian 13. The treatment of missing data in long-term monitoring programs Douglas H. Johnson and Michael B. Soma 14. Survey analysis in natural resource monitoring programs with a focus on cumulative distribution functions Thomas M. Kincaid and Anthony R. Olsen 15. Structural equation modeling and the analysis of long-term monitoring data James B. Grace, Jon E. Keeley, Darren J. Johnson and Kenneth A. Bollen Part IV. Advanced Issues and Applications: 16. GRTS and graphs: monitoring natural resources in urban landscapes Todd R. Lookingbill, John Paul Schmit and Shawn L. Carter 17. Incorporating predicted species distribution in adaptive and conventional sampling designs David R. Smith, Lei Yuancai, Christopher A. Walter and John A. Young 18. Study design and analysis options for demographic and species occurrence dynamics Darryl I. MacKenzie 19. Dealing with incomplete and variable detectability in multi-year, multi-site monitoring of ecological populations Sarah J. Converse and J. Andrew Royle 20. Optimal spatio-temporal monitoring designs for characterizing population trends Mevin B. Hooten, Beth E. Ross and Christopher K. Wikle 21. Use of citizen-science monitoring for pattern discovery and biological inference Wesley M. Hochachka, Daniel Fink and Benjamin Zuckerberg Part V. Conclusion: 22. Institutionalizing an effective long-term monitoring program in the US National Park Service Steven G. Fancy and Robert E. Bennetts 23. Choosing among long-term ecological monitoring programs and knowing when to stop Hugh P. Possingham, Richard A. Fuller and Liana N. Joseph References Index.