Joshua Levitz

Optical control of metabotropic glutamate receptors

G protein–coupled receptors (GPCRs), the largest family of membrane signaling proteins, respond to neurotransmitters, hormones and small environmental molecules. The neuronal function of many GPCRs has been difficult to resolve because of an inability to gate them with subtype specificity, spatial precision, speed and reversibility. To address this, we developed an approach for opto-chemical engineering of native GPCRs. We applied this to the metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs) to generate light-agonized and light-antagonized mGluRs (LimGluRs). The light-agonized LimGluR2, on which we focused, was fast, bistable and supported multiple rounds of on/off switching. Light gated two of the primary neuronal functions of mGluR2: suppression of excitability and inhibition of neurotransmitter release. We found that the light-antagonized tool LimGluR2-block was able to manipulate negative feedback of synaptically released glutamate on transmitter release. We generalized the optical control to two additional family members: mGluR3 and mGluR6. This system worked in rodent brain slices and in zebrafish in vivo, where we found that mGluR2 modulated the threshold for escape behavior. These light-gated mGluRs pave the way for determining the roles of mGluRs in synaptic plasticity, memory and disease.

Conformational dynamics of a class C G protein-coupled receptor

G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) constitute the largest family of membrane receptors in eukaryotes. Crystal structures have provided insight into GPCR interactions with ligands and G proteins, but our understanding of the conformational dynamics of activation is incomplete. Metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs) are dimeric class C GPCRs that modulate neuronal excitability, synaptic plasticity, and serve as drug targets for neurological disorders. A ‘clamshell’ ligand-binding domain (LBD), which contains the ligand-binding site, is coupled to the transmembrane domain via a cysteine-rich domain, and LBD closure seems to be the first step in activation. Crystal structures of isolated mGluR LBD dimers led to the suggestion that activation also involves a reorientation of the dimer interface from a ‘relaxed’ to an ‘active’ state, but the relationship between ligand binding, LBD closure and dimer interface rearrangement in activation remains unclear. Here we use single-molecule fluorescence resonance energy transfer to probe the activation mechanism of full-length mammalian group II mGluRs. We show that the LBDs interconvert between three conformations: resting, activated and a short-lived intermediate state. Orthosteric agonists induce transitions between these conformational states, with efficacy determined by occupancy of the active conformation. Unlike mGluR2, mGluR3 displays basal dynamics, which are Ca2+-dependent and lead to basal protein activation. Our results support a general mechanism for the activation of mGluRs in which agonist binding induces closure of the LBDs, followed by dimer interface reorientation. Our experimental strategy should be widely applicable to study conformational dynamics in GPCRs and other membrane proteins.

Two-photon brightness of azobenzene photoswitches designed for glutamate receptor optogenetics

Significance MAGs (maleimide-azobenzene-glutamate) are photoswitches that covalently bind to genetically engineered glutamate receptors (GluRs) and, under the control of light, mimic or block the action of the excitatory neurotransmitter glutamate. However the blue and near-UV light that optimally photoswitch MAGs do not penetrate well into the brain. In this paper, we show how MAGs can instead be photoswitched by two-photon (2P) absorption of near-infrared light, which penetrates deeper into tissue. We demonstrate 2P control of MAG-dependent ionic currents in neurons, and synthesize a new MAG photoswitch to enable 2P activation of a G protein coupled receptor signaling cascade through a metabotropic GluR. These optogenetic tools bring exceptional spatiotemporal resolution and pharmacological specificity to the study of synaptic transmission and plasticity in intact neural circuits. Mammalian neurotransmitter-gated receptors can be conjugated to photoswitchable tethered ligands (PTLs) to enable photoactivation, or photoantagonism, while preserving normal function at neuronal synapses. “MAG” PTLs for ionotropic and metabotropic glutamate receptors (GluRs) are based on an azobenzene photoswitch that is optimally switched into the liganding state by blue or near-UV light, wavelengths that penetrate poorly into the brain. To facilitate deep-tissue photoactivation with near-infrared light, we measured the efficacy of two-photon (2P) excitation for two MAG molecules using nonlinear spectroscopy. Based on quantitative characterization, we find a recently designed second generation PTL, l-MAG0460, to have a favorable 2P absorbance peak at 850 nm, enabling efficient 2P activation of the GluK2 kainate receptor, LiGluR. We also achieve 2P photoactivation of a metabotropic receptor, LimGluR3, with a new mGluR-specific PTL, d-MAG0460. 2P photoswitching is efficiently achieved using digital holography to shape illumination over single somata of cultured neurons. Simultaneous Ca2+-imaging reports on 2P photoswitching in multiple cells with high temporal resolution. The combination of electrophysiology or Ca2+ imaging with 2P activation by optical wavefront shaping should make second generation PTL-controlled receptors suitable for studies of intact neural circuits.

Orthogonal Optical Control of a G Protein-Coupled Receptor with a SNAP-Tethered Photochromic Ligand

The covalent attachment of synthetic photoswitches is a general approach to impart light sensitivity onto native receptors. It mimics the logic of natural photoreceptors and significantly expands the reach of optogenetics. Here we describe a novel photoswitch design—the photoswitchable orthogonal remotely tethered ligand (PORTL)—that combines the genetically encoded SNAP-tag with photochromic ligands connected to a benzylguanine via a long flexible linker. We use the method to convert the G protein-coupled receptor mGluR2, a metabotropic glutamate receptor, into a photoreceptor (SNAG-mGluR2) that provides efficient optical control over the neuronal functions of mGluR2: presynaptic inhibition and control of excitability. The PORTL approach enables multiplexed optical control of different native receptors using distinct bioconjugation methods. It should be broadly applicable since SNAP-tags have proven to be reliable, many SNAP-tagged receptors are already available, and photochromic ligands on a long leash are readily designed and synthesized.

Mechanism of Assembly and Cooperativity of Homomeric and Heteromeric Metabotropic Glutamate Receptors

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) mediate cellular responses to a wide variety of extracellular stimuli. GPCR dimerization may expand signaling diversity and tune functionality, but little is known about the mechanisms of subunit assembly and interaction or the signaling properties of heteromers. Using single-molecule subunit counting on class C metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs), we map dimerization determinants and define a heterodimerization profile. Intersubunit fluorescence resonance energy transfer measurements reveal that interactions between ligand-binding domains control the conformational rearrangements underlying receptor activation. Selective liganding with photoswitchable tethered agonists conjugated to one or both subunits of covalently linked mGluR2 homodimers reveals that receptor activation is highly cooperative. Strikingly, this cooperativity is asymmetric in mGluR2/mGluR3 heterodimers. Our results lead to a model of cooperative activation of mGluRs that provides a framework for understanding how class C GPCRs couple extracellular binding to dimer reorganization and G protein activation.

Heterodimerization within the TREK channel subfamily produces a diverse family of highly regulated potassium channels

Significance The two-pore-domain K+ (K2P) family of potassium channels provides basal inhibitory tone to regulate resting membrane potential and excitability of neurons. Although physiological and biochemical studies have indicated that distinct members of the family can heterodimerize, the tendency to do so, rather than homodimerize, and the functional effects of heterodimerization are minimally understood. We find that Twik-related K+ channel 1 (TREK1) dimerizes as readily with TREK2 as with itself and also with Twik-related arachidonic-acid stimulated K+ channel (TRAAK), although less efficiently. The heterodimers combine functional properties of their constituents in terms of three key modes of regulation: by external pH, internal pH, and phospholipase D2. The unique regulatory properties of TREK1-TREK2 and TREK1-TRAAK heterodimers provide insight into the extracellular and intracellular gating mechanisms of K2P channels. Twik-related K+ channel 1 (TREK1), TREK2, and Twik-related arachidonic-acid stimulated K+ channel (TRAAK) form the TREK subfamily of two-pore-domain K+ (K2P) channels. Despite sharing up to 78% sequence homology and overlapping expression profiles in the nervous system, these channels show major differences in their regulation by physiological stimuli. For instance, TREK1 is inhibited by external acidification, whereas TREK2 is activated. Here, we investigated the ability of the members of the TREK subfamily to assemble to form functional heteromeric channels with novel properties. Using single-molecule pull-down (SiMPull) from HEK cell lysate and subunit counting in the plasma membrane of living cells, we show that TREK1, TREK2, and TRAAK readily coassemble. TREK1 and TREK2 can each heterodimerize with TRAAK, but do so less efficiently than with each other. We functionally characterized the heterodimers and found that all combinations form outwardly rectifying potassium-selective channels but with variable voltage sensitivity and pH regulation. TREK1-TREK2 heterodimers show low levels of activity at physiological external pH but, unlike their corresponding homodimers, are activated by both acidic and alkaline conditions. Modeling based on recent crystal structures, along with mutational analysis, suggests that each subunit within a TREK1-TREK2 channel is regulated independently via titratable His. Finally, TREK1/TRAAK heterodimers differ in function from TRAAK homodimers in two critical ways: they are activated by both intracellular acidification and alkalinization and are regulated by the enzyme phospholipase D2. Thus, heterodimerization provides a means for diversifying functionality through an expansion of the channel types within the K2P channels.

Phospholipase D2 specifically regulates TREK potassium channels via direct interaction and local production of phosphatidic acid

Significance Our work provides evidence for a mechanism for the formation of membrane microdomains in which the local concentration of a phospholipid can change independently of the bulk membrane to confer selectivity on membrane protein regulation. We found that, despite the fact that all TWIK-related K channel (TREK) family members are sensitive to phosphatidic acid (PA), only TREK1 and TREK2 are potentiated by phospholipase D2 (PLD2) (which produces PA), but not by PLD1. This surprising specificity is due to the direct binding of PLD2 to TREK. This binding allows a local PA production that tonically activates the channel. Furthermore, we found the local signaling via PA to have a secondary focusing effect for primary alcohols, which inhibit the channel by altering the PA microdomain. Membrane lipids serve as second messengers and docking sites for proteins and play central roles in cell signaling. A major question about lipid signaling is whether diffusible lipids can selectively target specific proteins. One family of lipid-regulated membrane proteins is the TWIK-related K channel (TREK) subfamily of K2P channels: TREK1, TREK2, and TWIK-related arachdonic acid stimulated K+ channel (TRAAK). We investigated the regulation of TREK channels by phosphatidic acid (PA), which is generated by phospholipase D (PLD) via hydrolysis of phosphatidylcholine. Even though all three of the channels are sensitive to PA, we found that only TREK1 and TREK2 are potentiated by PLD2 and that none of these channels is modulated by PLD1, indicating surprising selectivity. We found that PLD2, but not PLD1, directly binds to the C terminus of TREK1 and TREK2, but not to TRAAK. The results have led to a model for selective lipid regulation by localization of phospholipid enzymes to specific effector proteins. Finally, we show that regulation of TREK channels by PLD2 occurs natively in hippocampal neurons.

A Toolkit for Orthogonal and in vivo Optical Manipulation of Ionotropic Glutamate Receptors.

The ability to optically manipulate specific neuronal signaling proteins with genetic precision paves the way for the dissection of their roles in brain function, behavior, and disease. Chemical optogenetic control with photoswitchable tethered ligands (PTLs) enables rapid, reversible and reproducible activation or block of specific neurotransmitter-gated receptors and ion channels in specific cells. In this study, we further engineered and characterized the light-activated GluK2 kainate receptor, LiGluR, to develop a toolbox of LiGluR variants. Low-affinity LiGluRs allow for efficient optical control of GluK2 while removing activation by native glutamate, whereas variant RNA edited versions enable the synaptic role of receptors with high and low Ca2+ permeability to be assessed and spectral variant photoswitches provide flexibility in illumination. Importantly, we establish that LiGluR works efficiently in the cortex of awake, adult mice using standard optogenetic techniques, thus opening the door to probing the role of specific synaptic receptors and cellular signals in the neural circuit operations of the mammalian brain in normal conditions and in disease. The principals developed in this study are widely relevant to the engineering and in vivo use of optically controllable proteins, including other neurotransmitter receptors.

Dual optical control and mechanistic insights into photoswitchable group II and III metabotropic glutamate receptors

Significance The ability to manipulate signaling proteins with high spatiotemporal and genetic precision holds great promise for understanding the role of specific molecules in physiology and disease. In this study, we have provided mechanistic characterization of an optogenetic method for the control of G protein-coupled metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs) using tethered photoswitches. This method provides substantial advantages, including improved labeling efficiency, photoswitch efficacy, and specificity. We harness this information to improve photoswitch efficacy, expand the approach throughout the mGluR family, thereby vastly expanding the toolbox, and design orthogonal photoswitches that permit dual optical control of multiple receptors. The engineering principles and approaches defined in this study should facilitate the extension of orthogonal photopharmacology to other signaling proteins. G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) signaling occurs in complex spatiotemporal patterns that are difficult to probe using standard pharmacological and genetic approaches. A powerful approach for dissecting GPCRs is to use light-controlled pharmacological agents that are tethered covalently and specifically to genetically engineered receptors. However, deficits in our understanding of the mechanism of such photoswitches have limited application of this approach and its extension to other GPCRs. In this study, we have harnessed the power of bioorthogonal tethering to SNAP and CLIP protein tags to create a family of light-gated metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs). We define the mechanistic determinants of photoswitch efficacy, including labeling efficiency, dependence on photoswitch structure, length dependence of the linker between the protein tag and the glutamate ligand, effective local concentration of the glutamate moiety, and affinity of the receptor for the ligand. We improve the scheme for photoswitch synthesis as well as photoswitch efficiency, and generate seven light-gated group II/III mGluRs, including variants of mGluR2, 3, 6, 7, and 8. Members of this family of light-controlled receptors can be used singly or in specifically labeled, independently light-controlled pairs for multiplexed control of receptor populations.

Optogenetic techniques for the study of native potassium channels.

Optogenetic tools were originally designed to target specific neurons for remote control of their activity by light and have largely been built around opsin-based channels and pumps. These naturally photosensitive opsins are microbial in origin and are unable to mimic the properties of native neuronal receptors and channels. Over the last 8 years, photoswitchable tethered ligands (PTLs) have enabled fast and reversible control of mammalian ion channels, allowing optical control of neuronal activity. One such PTL, maleimide-azobenzene-quaternary ammonium (MAQ), contains a maleimide (M) to tether the molecule to a genetically engineered cysteine, a photoisomerizable azobenzene (A) linker and a pore-blocking quaternary ammonium group (Q). MAQ was originally used to photocontrol SPARK, an engineered light-gated potassium channel derived from Shaker. Potassium channel photoblock by MAQ has recently been extended to a diverse set of mammalian potassium channels including channels in the voltage-gated and K2P families. Photoswitchable potassium channels, which maintain native properties, pave the way for the optical control of specific aspects of neuronal function and for high precision probing of a specific channel’s physiological functions. To extend optical control to natively expressed channels, without overexpression, one possibility is to develop a knock-in mouse in which the wild-type channel gene is replaced by its light-gated version. Alternatively, the recently developed photoswitchable conditional subunit technique provides photocontrol of the channel of interest by molecular replacement of wild-type complexes. Finally, photochromic ligands also allow photocontrol of potassium channels without genetic manipulation using soluble compounds. In this review we discuss different techniques for optical control of native potassium channels and their associated advantages and disadvantages.