Jozsef Kiss

Pests, pesticide use and alternative options in European maize production: current status and future prospects.

Political efforts are made in the European Union (EU) to reduce pesticide use and to increase the implementation of integrated pest management (IPM). Within the EU project ENDURE, research priorities on pesticide reduction are defined. Using maize, one of the most important crops in Europe, as a case study, we identified the most serious weeds, arthropod pests, and fungal diseases as well as classes and amounts of pesticides applied. Data for 11 European maize growing regions were collected from databases, publications and expert estimates. Silage maize dominates in northern Europe and grain production in central and southern Europe. Crop rotations range from continuous growing of maize over several years to well‐planned rotation systems. Weeds, arthropod pests and fungal diseases cause economic losses in most regions, even though differences exist between northern countries and central and southern Europe. Several weed and arthropod species cause increasing problems, illustrating that the goal of reducing chemical pesticide applications is challenging. Pesticides could potentially be reduced by the choice of varieties including genetically modified hybrids, cultural control including crop rotation, biological control, optimized application techniques for chemicals, and the development of more specific treatments. However, restrictions in the availability of alternative pest control measures, farm organization, and the training and knowledge of farmers need to be overcome before the adoption of environmentally friendly pest control strategies can reduce chemical pesticides in an economically competitive way. The complex of several problems that need to be tackled simultaneously and the link between different control measures demonstrates the need for IPM approaches, where pest control is seen in the context of the cropping system and on a regional scale. Multicriteria assessments and decision support systems combined with pest monitoring programs may help to develop region‐specific and sustainable strategies that are harmonized within a EU framework.

Eight principles of integrated pest management

The use of pesticides made it possible to increase yields, simplify cropping systems, and forego more complicated crop protection strategies. Over-reliance on chemical control, however, is associated with contamination of ecosystems and undesirable health effects. The future of crop production is now also threatened by emergence of pest resistance and declining availability of active substances. There is therefore a need to design cropping systems less dependent on synthetic pesticides. Consequently, the European Union requires the application of eight principles (P) of Integrated Pest Management that fit within sustainable farm management. Here, we propose to farmers, advisors, and researchers a dynamic and flexible approach that accounts for the diversity of farming situations and the complexities of agroecosystems and that can improve the resilience of cropping systems and our capacity to adapt crop protection to local realities. For each principle (P), we suggest that (P1) the design of inherently robust cropping systems using a combination of agronomic levers is key to prevention. (P2) Local availability of monitoring, warning, and forecasting systems is a reality to contend with. (P3) The decision-making process can integrate cropping system factors to develop longer-term strategies. (P4) The combination of non-chemical methods that may be individually less efficient than pesticides can generate valuable synergies. (P5) Development of new biological agents and products and the use of existing databases offer options for the selection of products minimizing impact on health, the environment, and biological regulation of pests. (P6) Reduced pesticide use can be effectively combined with other tactics. (P7) Addressing the root causes of pesticide resistance is the best way to find sustainable crop protection solutions. And (P8) integration of multi-season effects and trade-offs in evaluation criteria will help develop sustainable solutions.

A mathematical model of exposure of non- target Lepidoptera to Bt-maize pollen expressing Cry1Ab within Europe

Genetically modified (GM) maize MON810 expresses a Cry1Ab insecticidal protein, derived from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), toxic to lepidopteran target pests such as Ostrinia nubilalis. An environmental risk to non-target Lepidoptera from this GM crop is exposure to harmful amounts of Bt-containing pollen deposited on host plants in or near MON810 fields. An 11-parameter mathematical model analysed exposure of larvae of three non-target species: the butterflies Inachis io (L.), Vanessa atalanta (L.) and moth Plutella xylostella (L.), in 11 representative maize cultivation regions in four European countries. A mortality–dose relationship was integrated with a dose–distance relationship to estimate mortality both within the maize MON810 crop and within the field margin at varying distances from the crop edge. Mortality estimates were adjusted to allow for physical effects; the lack of temporal coincidence between the susceptible larval stage concerned and the period over which maize MON810 pollen is shed; and seven further parameters concerned with maize agronomy and host-plant ecology. Sublethal effects were estimated and allowance made for aggregated pollen deposition. Estimated environmental impact was low: in all regions, the calculated mortality rate for worst-case scenarios was less than one individual in every 1572 for the butterflies and one in 392 for the moth.

Estimating the effects of Cry1F Bt‐maize pollen on non‐target Lepidoptera using a mathematical model of exposure

Summary 1. In farmland biodiversity, a potential risk to the larvae of non‐target Lepidoptera from genetically modified (GM) Bt‐maize expressing insecticidal Cry1 proteins is the ingestion of harmful amounts of pollen deposited on their host plants. A previous mathematical model of exposure quantified this risk for Cry1Ab protein. We extend this model to quantify the risk for sensitive species exposed to pollen containing Cry1F protein from maize event 1507 and to provide recommendations for management to mitigate this risk. 2. A 14‐parameter mathematical model integrating small‐ and large‐scale exposure was used to estimate the larval mortality of hypothetical species with a range of sensitivities, and under a range of simulated mitigation measures consisting of non‐Bt maize strips of different widths placed around the field edge. 3. The greatest source of variability in estimated mortality was species sensitivity. Before allowance for effects of large‐scale exposure, with moderate within‐crop host‐plant density and with no mitigation, estimated mortality locally was <10% for species of average sensitivity. For the worst‐case extreme sensitivity considered, estimated mortality locally was 99·6% with no mitigation, although this estimate was reduced to below 40% with mitigation of 24‐m‐wide strips of non‐Bt maize. For highly sensitive species, a 12‐m‐wide strip reduced estimated local mortality under 1·5%, when within‐crop host‐plant density was zero. Allowance for large‐scale exposure effects would reduce these estimates of local mortality by a highly variable amount, but typically of the order of 50‐fold. 4. Mitigation efficacy depended critically on assumed within‐crop host‐plant density; if this could be assumed negligible, then the estimated effect of mitigation would reduce local mortality below 1% even for very highly sensitive species. 5.  Synthesis and applications. Mitigation measures of risks of Bt‐maize to sensitive larvae of non‐target lepidopteran species can be effective, but depend on host‐plant densities which are in turn affected by weed‐management regimes. We discuss the relevance for management of maize events where cry1F is combined (stacked) with a herbicide‐tolerance trait. This exemplifies how interactions between biota may occur when different traits are stacked irrespective of interactions between the proteins themselves and highlights the importance of accounting for crop management in the assessment of the ecological impact of GM plants.

Morphological and molecular analysis of common millet (P. miliaceum) cultivars compared to an aDNA sample from the 15th century (Hungary)

SummaryMorphological characterization of 20 common millet (Panicum miliaceum L., 2n = 4x = 36) cultivars and landraces revealed four distinct clusters which were apparently consistent with the grain colors of black, black and brown, red, yellow, and white. Seed remains of medieval millet, recovered from a 15th century layer (Kings Palace, Budapest, Hungary), showed reddish yellow grain color after rehydrating on tissue culture medium that was close to grain color of modern cultivar Omszkoje. aDNA of medieval commom millet was extracted successfully, analyzed and compared to modern common millets by ISSR, SSR, CAP and mtDNA. Analyses of fragments and sequences revealed polymorphism at seven ISSR loci (15 alleles) and at the 5S-18S rDNA locus of mtDNA. CAP analysis of the 5S-18S rDNA fragment revealed no SNPs in the restriction sites of six endonucleases TaqI, BsuRI, HinfI, MboI, AluI and RsaI. Sequence alignments of the restriction fragments RsaI also revealed consensus sequence in the medieval sample compared to a modern variety. An attempted phenotype reconstruction indicated that medieval common millet showed the closest morphological similarity to modern millet cultivar Omszkoje.

AFLP analysis and improved phytoextraction capacity of transgenic gshI-poplar clones (Populus x canescens L.) for copper in vitro

Abstract Clone stability and in vitro phytoextraction capacity of vegetative clones of P. x canescens (2n = 4x = 38) including two transgenic clones (ggs11 and lgl6) were studied as in vitro leaf disc cultures. Presence of the gshI-transgene in the transformed clones was detected in PCR reactions using gshI-specific primers. Clone stability was determined by fAFLP (fluorescent amplified DNA fragment length polymorphism) analysis. In total, 682 AFLP fragments were identified generated by twelve selective primer pairs after EcoRIDMseI digestion. Four fragments generated by EcoAGTDMseCCC were different (99.4% genetic similarity) which proves an unexpectedly low bud mutation frequency in P. \ canescens. For the study of phytoextraction capacity leaf discs (8 mm) were exposed to a concentration series of ZnSO4 (10-1 to 10-5 ᴍ) incubated for 21 days on aseptic tissue culture media WPM containing 1 μᴍ Cu. Zn2+ caused phytotoxicity only at high concentrations (10-1 to 10-2 ᴍ). The transgenic poplar cyt-ECS (ggs11) clone, as stimulated by the presence of Zn, showed elevated heavy metal (Cu) uptake as compared to the non-transformed clone. These results suggest that gshI-transgenic poplars may be suitable for phytoremediation of soils contaminated with zinc and copper.

Identifying obstacles and ranking common biological control research priorities for Europe to manage most economically important pests in arable, vegetable and perennial crops.

EU agriculture is currently in transition from conventional crop protection to integrated pest management (IPM). Because biocontrol is a key component of IPM, many European countries recently have intensified their national efforts on biocontrol research and innovation (R&I), although such initiatives are often fragmented. The operational outputs of national efforts would benefit from closer collaboration among stakeholders via transnationally coordinated approaches, as most economically important pests are similar across Europe. This paper proposes a common European framework on biocontrol R&I. It identifies generic R&I bottlenecks and needs as well as priorities for three crop types (arable, vegetable and perennial crops). The existing gap between the market offers of biocontrol solutions and the demand of growers, the lengthy and expensive registration process for biocontrol solutions and their varying effectiveness due to variable climatic conditions and site-specific factors across Europe are key obstacles hindering the development and adoption of biocontrol solutions in Europe. Considering arable, vegetable and perennial crops, a dozen common target pests are identified for each type of crop and ranked by order of importance at European level. Such a ranked list indicates numerous topics on which future joint transnational efforts would be justified.

The usefulness of a mathematical model of exposure for environmental risk assessment.

We respond to the Comment of Lang et al . [[1][1]] regarding our mathematical model [[2][2]] of exposure of non-target Lepidoptera to Bt -maize pollen expressing Cry1Ab within Europe. Lang et al . remark on the degree to which the model was subject to uncertainty. Perry et al . [[2][2]] did indeed

Suitability of different fluorescent powders for mass-marking the Chrysomelid, Diabrotica virgifera virgifera LeConte

Abstract:  The Western Corn Rootworm, Diabrotica virgifera virgifera LeConte (Col., Chrysomelidae), is an invasive alien pest of maize, Zea mays, in Europe. The suitability of 14 fluorescent powders for mass‐marking the adults was studied in laboratory and in field cages. The visual discrimination between remaining spots of each colour on the beetles was investigated under ultraviolet (UV) light, as well as their retention time and the influences of those colours on the beetle survival and flight take‐off response. The two best recognizable orange colours (i.e. of Radiant Colour and of Fiesta Colours Swada) were proposed for field experiments in first priority, followed by an orange and a yellow (both Magruder Colour), another yellow (Fiesta) and a pink (Radiant), as all did not affect beetle survival and flight take‐off response and were recognizable under UV light for at least 10 days in the field. In contrast, the colours yellow and green (Radiant), red and blue (Magruder), yellow (Ciba Geigy) and pink (Fiesta) were unsuitable, because they either quickly disappeared from the beetles or adversely affected beetle survival or flight take‐off response. For mass releases with differently marked beetles, only the use of a single orange colour together with a single yellow colour or the use of a pink colour together with a yellow colour can be used since few spots can clearly be discriminated from each other under UV light.

RT-PCR analysis and stress response capacity of transgenic gshi-poplar clones (Populus x canescens) in response to paraquat exposure

Abstract Stress response capacity (Fv/Fm at 690 nm and F690/F735 at Fmax) of untransformed hybrid poplar, Populus × canescens (P. tremula × P. alba), and two transgenic lines overexpressing γ-ECS (γ-glutamylcysteine synthetase) either in the cytosol (cyt-ECS) or in the chloroplast (chl-ECS) was studied in response to the herbicide paraquat (4.0 × 10-9 to 4.0 × 10-6 m) for 21 days. Significant differences at sublethal (4.0 × 10-7 m) and bleaching (4.0 × 10-6 m) concentrations of paraquat were observed with about a two-fold and eight-fold decrease in the photosynthetic activity (Fv/Fm at 690 nm and F690/F735 at Fmax), respectively. None of the gshI transgenic lines (cyt-ECS, chl-ECS) with elevated GSH content exhibited significant tolerance to paraquat. Semiquantitative RT-PCR of the cyt-ECS clone was used for gene expression analysis of the nuclear encoded rbcS gene and the stress responsive gst gene. Expression of the constitutively expressed 26SrRNA ribosomal gene was probed as a control for all RT-PCR reactions. The relative intensities of gene expressions normalized to the level of 26SrRNA intensity showed a 50% decrease in the nuclear encoded rbcS expression and a 120% increase in the stress responsive gst gene expression of the paraquat treated (4.0 × 10-7 m) samples of the transgenic poplar line (cyt-ECS).