Juan Gomez

Comparative Analysis of Road Financing Approaches in Europe and the United States

Road infrastructure has a remarkable economic and social impact on society. This is the reason why road financing has always drawn the attention of policy makers, especially when resources available for government spending become scarce. Nations exhibit differing approaches toward dealing with road transportation financing. In the United States, the current system of road financing has been called into question, for some regard it as insufficient to meet the necessary amounts required for road expenditure. By contrast, in most European countries, road charges are very high, but are not earmarked for the funding of roads. This paper analyzes, the balance between charging for the use of, and expenditure on, the road sector in the United States, and compares the American policy with those of several European countries (Germany, United Kingdom, France, Spain, and Switzerland). To that end, the authors define a methodology to calculate the annual amount of fee-charges levied on light and heavy vehicles in the selected countries, in order to compare those charges with the annual road expenditure. The results show that road charges in America are noticeably lower than those paid in Europe. Additionally, the research concludes that, in Europe, road-generated revenues exceed road expenditure in all countries studied, so road charges actually subsidize other policies. By contrast, in the United States the public sector subsidizes the road system in order to maintain the current level of expenditure.

Facies associations, sequence stratigraphy and timing of the earliest Jurassic peak transgression in central Spain (Iberian Range): Correlation with other Lower Jurassic sections

Facies associations and sequence stratigraphy of the Lower Jurassic shallow platform to peritidal carbonates of the Cuevas Labradas Formation (Sinemurian to Pliensbachian) have been studied in the Barranco de la Hoz section, located in the central−southern part of the Iberian Range. Four stratigraphical units (A to D) have been differentiated. Unit A, deposited in a restricted platform, is organized in aggradational thickening- and shallowing-upward sequences. Unit B, deposited in external restricted platform environments, is composed of shallowing- and deepening-upward sequences. This unit contains Polymorphites sp., Uptonia cf. jamesoni (SOW.) and Uptonia cf. angusta (QUENST.) that characterize the upper part of the Jamesoni Zone of the Lower Pliensbachian. The transgressive peak of 3rd order Cycle LJ2−2 is located in the marly facies of unit B. Unit C is composed of shallowing-upward sequences of “muddy” type in the lower part, deposited in the proximal part of the shallow restricted external platform and “grainy” type in the upper part, representing wave-dominated bioclastic shoals. Unit D is constituted by peritidal shallowing-upward sequences deposited in shallow restricted subtidal environment of the internal platform to the intertidal and supratidal environments. The 5th order cycles constituting the 3rd order facies Cycle LJ2−2, have been grouped into 4th order cycles. The duration of the 3rd order Cycle LJ2−2 is estimated as 2.6 Myr, and the possible average duration of the 4th order cycles as 0.4 Myr. This figure is close to the most frequent duration of the long-term Milankovitch orbital eccentricity cycles. Comparison of the obtained results with other Lower Jurassic sections in Spain, Europe and with the global cycles shows that the boundary between cycles LJ−1 and LJ−2, which represents the onset of the first Jurassic transgression and the peak transgression identified in this work at the Lower Pliensbachian Jamesoni Zone as well as the boundary between cycles LJ−2 and LJ−3 seem to represent good criteria for correlation between the different palaeogeographical domains.

Bivalves from the Triassic−Jurassic transition in northern Spain (Asturias and western Basque−Cantabrian Basin)

Abstract. n Bivalve mollusks from the Triassic-Jurassic transition collected in eight localities in Asturias and the western Basque-Cantabrian Basin (Palencia province) are systematically revised. Preservation is poor at all localities. The dominant Rhaetian bivalves are Isocyprina concentrica (Moore) and Bakevellia (Bakevelloides) praecursor (Quenstedt). These species, together with Isocyprina cf. ewaldi (Bornemann), Pteromya cf. crowcombeia (Moore), Pseudoplacunopsis alpina (Winkler), and Modiolus? sp. (cf. minimus J. Sowerby), with a specimen of Arcestidae (?), belong to an assemblage similar to that found in the Westbury and Lilstock formations (Penarth Group) in the late Rhaetian of southern England. The most abundant Hettangian species is Isocyprina (Eotrapezium) germari (Dunker). Others are referred to Cuneigervillia rhombica (Cossmann), Sphaeriola? sp., Eomiodon? sp. and Pteromya cf. tatei (Richardson and Tutcher). All Hettangian shell beds examined are monotypic or have very low diversity, a biological indication that they may belong to a restricted marine environment, with high environmental stress levels. Even the more diverse assemblage (Pteromya-Cuneigervillia-Eomiodon) was probably also salinity controlled. The fauna analyzed here clearly belongs to the same facies and environment as those described from Aquitaine (France) and the Pyrenees and is different from coeval bivalve assemblages from other European Hettangian localities. The Triassic-Jurassic boundary cannot be precisely located at the studied sections on the basis of the bivalve faunas alone, but these indicate that the transition beds in Asturias were deposited in a marginal marine environment and the benthic fauna was dominated by shallow burrowing, suspensivorous bivalves.

The hydrocarbon source rocks of the Pliensbachian (Early Jurassic) in the Asturian Basin (Northern Spain): Their relationship with the palaeoclimatic oscillations and gamma-ray response.

Deposition of black shale facies, one of the main contributors for hydrocarbon production, is commonly assumed to be linked to Oceanic Anoxic Events (OAEs), which are supposed to be generated during warm palaeoclimats. This assumption could bias the exploration for hydrocarbon source rocks preferentially towards sediments deposited under warm palaoenvironments, as a preferential guide for hydrocarbon exploration. As a consequence, the establishment of the links between palaeotemperature and the formation of organic-rich deposits is of primary importance to find arguments on this subject. For this purpose, the Upper Sinemurian, Pliensbachian and Lower Toarcian (Lower Jurassic) deposits of the Asturian Basin in Northern Spain, including more than 100 m thick succession containing organic-rich and black shale deposits, has been studied. Correlation between palaeoclimatic data, previously obtained from oxygen isotopes, and the TOC content reveals that black shales and organic-rich sediments were deposited not only during warming intervals but also during a prominent cooling event that occurred at the Late Pliensbachian. This cooling interval has been pointed out as one of the main candidates to have developed ice caps in the poles during the Jurassic. On the contrary, no black shales were generated during the postulated Early Toarcian OAE, which coincides with a superwarming interval. Additionally, the study of the facies cycles and the measurement of gamma-ray in outcrops and its correlation with TOC content provides data on the use of natural radioactivity and sea level changes as a proxy for preliminary organic matter richness evaluation.

Seeking Factors to Increase the Public's Acceptability of Road-Pricing Schemes: Case Study of Spain

User acceptability has become a critical issue for the successful implementation of transport pricing measures and policies. Although several studies have addressed the public acceptability of road pricing, little evidence can be found of the effects of pricing strategies. The acceptability of alternative schemes for a toll network already in operation is an issue to be tackled. This paper contributes to the limited literature in this field by exploring perceptions toward road-pricing schemes among toll road users. On the basis of a nationwide survey of toll road users in Spain, the study developed several binomial logit models to analyze user acceptability of three approaches: express toll lanes, a time-based pricing approach, and a flat fee (vignette) system. The results show notable differences in user acceptability by the type of charging scheme proposed. Express toll lanes were more acceptable by travelers who perceived greater benefits from saving travel time. The acceptability of time-based approaches (peak versus off-peak) decreased for users who felt forced to use the toll road, whereas this was not an aspect that significantly influenced users’ support for flat fee schemes. In addition, a flat fee strategy was more acceptable for long-distance trips and truck drivers who regularly used the toll facilities. The results from this analysis can inform policy makers and planners for the promotion of more efficient, socially inclusive, and publicly acceptable road-pricing schemes.

The epiclastic barrier-island system of the Early‒Middle Jurassic in eastern Spain

BackgroundDuring the Early-Middle Jurassic, several mainly volcaniclastic submarine eruptions, which followed well marked lineaments, took place in the Iberian Ranges of eastern Spain. Some of these volcanoes were occasionally emerged during sea-level lowstand periods.PurposesIn this work we aim to present the signs indicating that a huge volcanic pile, located in the Sierra de Javalambre (Teruel, Spain), could have been subjected to emersion, reworking and colonization by flora. We also intend to date the volcanism and to delimit the most likely period of time when emersion, reworking and colonization were produced.MethodsThe research work was supported by geological mapping, as well as by preparing stratigraphic sections and their palaeontological sampling. Biostratigraphical dating was achieved though taxonimical determination of ammonites, brachiopods, and data from pre-existing palynological studies.ResultsAs a result of the shallow marine and subaerial partial erosion of the volcanic edifice, epiclastic bodies, some of which show large scale cross-bedding and bar geometry, were generated. These bedforms are interpreted as sandwaves constituting a barrier-island system protecting a lagoon on which low-energy sediments, rich in plant remains, together with washover fan facies were deposited.ConclusionsAn Early Toarcian, Serpentinum Chronozone age for the volcanism is indicated by the brachiopod and ammonite content of infra- and inter-volcanic sediments. However, burial of the volcanic mound by the carbonates of the surrounding platforms ended in the Late Aalenian Bradfordensis Chronozone, about 10 million years after the eruption. This delay was partly due to a significant regional sedimentary gap marked by the hiatus of the Late Toarcian (from the Late Variabilis Chronozone) to the Late Aalenian (Bradfordensis-Concavum chronozones). The emersion of the volcanic pile, the colonization of the emerged islands by continental vegetation and the instauration of the epiclastic barrier-island system occurred between part of the Aalenian Murchisonae and part of the Bradfordensis chronozones. The concurrence of the porous epiclastic lithofacies together with the organic-rich lagoonal sediments could represent an analogue model of an untypical hydrocarbon system located in neritic position, which could probably be applied in other areas of extensive emerged submarine volcanoes present in the geological record.ResumenAntecedentesDurante el Jurásico Inferior y Medio tuvieron lugar varias erupciones submarinas, principalmente de tipo volcanoclástico, que se ordenaron siguiendo alineamientos bien definidos en la Cordillera Ibérica del este de España. Algunos de estos volcanes emergieron localmente durante periodos de lowstand del nivel del mar.ObjetivosEn este trabajo presentamos los indicios de que un enorme apilamiento de material volcánico, localizado en la Sierra de Javalambre (Teruel, España), podría haber emergido y haber sido retrabajado y colonizado por flora de hábitat terrestre. También intentamos datar el vulcanismo y tratar de delimitar el periodo de tiempo más probable en el que se produjo la emersión, el retrabajamiento y la colonización.MétodosEl trabajo de investigación estuvo basado en la cartografía geológica, así como en el levantamiento de secciones estratigráficas y su muestreo paleontológico. La datación bioestratigráfica se consiguió por medio de las determinaciones taxonómicas de ammonites y braquiópodos y por los datos de estudios palinológicos ya existentes.ResultadosComo consecuencia de la erosión parcial del edificio volcánico, que tuvo lugar en entornos subaéreos y marinos someros, se generaron cuerpos de origen epiclástico. Algunos de estos cuerpos muestran geometría de barras y estratificación cruzada de gran escala. Estas bedforms se interpretan como sandwaves constituyentes de un sistema de isla barrera que protegía un lagoon en el cual se depositaron sedimentos de baja energía, ricos en restos de plantas, junto con facies de washover fans.ConclusionesEl contenido fosilífero de ammonites y braquiópodos de los sedimentos infravolcánicos e intervolcánicos indica una edad Toarciense Inferior, Cronozona Serpentinum, para la emisión volcánica. Sin embargo, el enterramiento definitivo del montículo volcánico por los carbonatos de las plataformas circundantes no tuvo lugar hasta el Aaleniense Superior, Cronozona Bradfordensis, unos 10 millones de años después de la erupción. Este retraso se debió en parte a una importante interrupción regional de la sedimentación, que se extiende desde el Toarciense Superior (a partir del final de la Cronozona Variabilis) hasta el Aaleniense Superior (cronozonas Bradfordensis-Concavum). La emersión de la acumulación volcánica, la colonización de las islas emergidas por vegetación continental y la instauración de un sistema de islas barrera epiclásticas tuvo lugar entre parte de las cronozonas Murchisonae y Bradfordensis del Aaleniense. La coexistencia de litofacies epiclásticas porosas junto con sedimentos de lagoon, ricos en materia orgánica, constituiría el modelo de un atípico sistema de hidrocarburos localizado en posiciones neríticas, que podría ser aplicado probablemente en otras áreas de extensos volcanes submarinos emergidos, presentes en el registro geológico.

SOCIAL EXCLUSION AND HIGH SPEED RAIL: THE CASE STUDY OF SPAIN

Very few contributions in the literature have dealt with the issue of social exclusion related to High Speed Rail systems. The objective of this manuscript is to understand what are the factors excluding users from choosing High Speed Rail services considering as case study Spain. For this purpose, a Revealed Preference survey was employed in November and December 2015. A questionnaire was submitted to users of the Spanish transport systems travelling for long distance-journeys. The aim was that of investigating their perception of High Speed Rail system and the factors inhibiting passengers or excluding them from its use. Data about their socioeconomic characteristics were collected as well. The main result of the survey has been that a relationship between social exclusion and High Speed Rail in Spain is present, especially in terms of geographical exclusion. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.4995/CIT2016.2016.3100