Juanita M. Firestone

Changes in Predictors of Gender Role Ideologies Among Women: A Multivariate Analysis

Using data from the National Opinion ResearchCenters General Social Surveys for 1974-1994, weanalyze changes in gender role ideology among women inthe U.S. We focus on women tied to previous research indicating increasing labor force participationamong various groups of women such as those withpreschool children and those of Hispanic origin, and thepurported egalitarian impact of labor forceparticipation on gender role attitudes. The General SocialSurveys include 9833 women who responded to the genderrole questions, with 1132 black (11.5%) and 351 Hispanic(3.6%) women. Our results refine earlier bivariate findings about the impact of specific types oflife experiences and family power dynamics on womensviews about appropriate roles for men and women. Mostimportantly, we find that there may be an ubiquitous shift toward more egalitarian gender roleattitudes among women in the U.S. regardless of theirindividual characteristics and circumstances.

The impact of gender role ideology, male expectancies, and acculturation on wife abuse

Hispanics are now receiving greater attention in social science research as one of the nation’s most rapidly growing ethnic groups. One important component related to these studies focuses on the process of Latino/a integration into the economy and social assimilation into the society at large. Explanations and techniques for understanding migratory and social adaptation experiences for Latinos/as were analogous to those used to interpret earlier waves of immigrants to the United States. There are important differences in cultural orientation and culturally influenced behaviors which are reflected in higher rates of divorce, mental illness, substance use, and arrests among U.S.-born Latinos, and among immigrants who have extended residency in the United States. One important domain, which may be influenced by these changes, is the family: its structure and functional dynamics. Of special interest is the influence of culture change on interpersonal behaviors of family members; included among those behaviors are various forms of spousal abuse. Studies have reported, alternately, higher or lower rates of wife abuse among Latino/a families compared to Anglo families (Lown & Vega, 2001; Perilla, Bakeman, & Norris, 1994; Sorenson, 1996; Sorenson & Telles, 1991; Straus & Smith, 1990; Torres, 1991). Based on data from San Francisco residents, Russell (1986) found no difference in the incidence of sexual abuse among Mexican Americans, African Americans, and non-Hispanic whites. On the other hand, Kercher and McShane (1984) analyzed data from Texas residents and found a higher rate of victimization compared to non-Hispanic whites and African Americans. Stein,

Gender Role Ideology and the Gender Based Differences in Earnings

Much of the research on gender differences in occupational earnings still focuses on human capital and the structure of the labor market. However, these variables rarely explain even half of the gender gap in earnings. Most research has examined the impact of gender role ideology as it impacts occupational choice, which indirectly can impact earnings. Using data from the National Opinion Research Center General Social Surveys, this research focuses on the relationship between attitudes about gender roles and two variables: (a) earnings, and (b) occupational positions held by women and men. Findings show that traditional gender-role ideology contributes to lower observed earnings for both males and females, independent of the influences of human capital characteristics, occupational context, and ascribed characteristics. Results support socialization as a partial explanation for the gender-based earnings differences and suggest that, to the extent that economic rewards are used to assess the value of gender role expectations, traditional gender role attitudes might continue to change and lead to relatively equal earnings among women and men.

Perceptions of Effectiveness of Responses to Sexual Harassment in the US Military, 1988 and 1995

This analysis compares patterns of response to the harassment experiences that had the greatest effect on the respondents to the ‘1988 Department of Defense (DoD) Survey of Sex Roles in the Active-Duty Military’ and Form A of the ‘1995 Armed Forces Sexual Harassment Survey’. We analyse the respondents’ perceptions about effectiveness of their responses, and respondents’ opinions about the efforts of senior military leadership, and their own immediate supervisors’ efforts to ‘make honest and reasonable efforts to stop sexual harassment in the active-duty military’ (DoD, 1988; Bastian et al., 1996). Results indicate that while the military has been somewhat successful in attempts to lower actual incidence of sexual harassment, the percentage of those experiencing such uninvited and unwanted behaviours remains high. Similar patterns of responses in both years, with most employing personal solutions and few filing complaints with officials, may reflect the fact that official DoD policy focuses on individual behaviour and does not address the masculine environmental context that promotes such behaviours (see also Harrell and Miller, 1997). Findings also suggest that the ‘no tolerance’ policies adopted by the military may concentrate on the military image but ignore the wishes of the complainants who fear reprisals. If the rights and wishes of all parties involved are not taken into account, policies are unlikely to be successful (see, for example, Rowe, 1996).

A comparison of women's and men's leisure time: subtle effects of the double day.

Abstract In this article womens and mens leisure time were examined using the 1981 Study of Time Use (Juster, Hill, Stafford, & Parsons, 1983). Gender differences in total leisure time, types of leisure activities, and the effects of household labor time and paid labor time on womens and mens leisure time were assessed. Although there were few significant differences in womens and mens leisure time expenditures, some differences in the determinants of leisure were found. Although household labor time affects womens and mens leisure time in the same way, the impact of paid labor time on leisure time varies by gender and by type of leisure. Paid labor time has a stronger effect on womens nondomestic leisure time than on mens, whereas the reverse is true for domestic leisure time. The different types of leisure activities in which women and men engage, and their different time expenditures for paid work and housework, combined to produce these different patterns of effects.

HOUSEHOLD LABOR TIME AND THE GENDER GAP IN EARNINGS

In this article, we examine the effects of time spent in household labor on the gender gap in earnings. We identify that part of the gender gap in earnings directly attributable to womens greater household labor time. After controlling for years of work experience, hours worked per week, occupation, industry, union membership, and education, we find that household labor time can directly account for 8.2 percent of the gender gap in earnings. In addition to the direct effect of womens household responsibilities on earnings, they also may affect occupational location, work experience, and number of hours worked per week, and through these variables, their earnings. These findings indicate that we cannot truly understand womens earnings relative to those of men without considering the impact of their unpaid labor on their paid work.

Intimate violence among women of Mexican origin: Correlates of abuse

Data from the Mexican American Prevalence and Services Survey (Vega, Kolody, Aguilar-Gaxiola, Alderete, Catalano, & Caraveo-Anduaga, 1998) was used to test the impact of acculturation and acculturation stress on intimate partner abuse of women of Mexican origin. Findings indicated that higher acculturation increases intimate abuse, and social support reduces it. Acculturation stress increases abuse only among immigrants. Abuse rates are higher among U.S.-born Mexican Americans than immigrants. There are no additive effects of education and income in explaining abuse within a multivariate model. These results suggest a complex causal process that could not be fully addressed in this study. Our results highlight the need for improved understanding about how the acculturation and acculturation stress processes are differentially related to intimate violence among immigrants and U.S.-born Mexican Americans.

Analyzing Questions That Cannot Be Asked of Respondents Who Cannot Respond

This article examines data from the survey commissioned in 2000 by the Office of the Inspector General to “initiate an assessment of the environment at representative installations... within each Military Department with respect to the application of the homosexual conduct policy.” Analyses are designed to describe patterns in the factors related to awareness of harassment incidents based on perceived sexual orientation, and to test specific hypotheses related to the factors likely to predict awareness. Findings indicate that higher-ranking personnel report less awareness of harassment based on perceived sexual orientation, and that the US Air Force has the lowest percentages reporting such incidents. Interestingly, women officers are more likely to report awareness of harassment—suggesting they may be more likely to view incidents as harassment, or may be less insulated from harassing incidents than male officers. Perhaps most important, harassment is seen to occur during the typical course of military duty experiences. Ultimately we argue that the “don’t ask, don’t tell, don’t pursue” policy prevents open interaction between members of different sexual orientations, and instead may serve to perpetuate negative stereotypes.

An Examination of Household Labor Time as a Factor in Composition and Treatment Effects on the Male-Female Wage Gap

Abstract This article examines the effects of time spent on household labor on the earnings of women and men. Using 1981 data from a sample of families, we assess the effects of womens greater household labor time on their earnings after controlling for other characteristics. After isolating the amount in earnings explained by differences in the characteristics of men and women (excluding time spent in household labor), we find that time spent on household labor can explain only a small part of the total gender gap in earnings but is more important than any other single characteristic in explaining this difference.

An Estimation of the Effects of Women's Work on Available Leisure Time

In this article we examine the leisure time expenditures of married women in the paid labor force. Our analysis delineates two categories of leisure activities (active and passive) that are differentially affected by womens work. Using the 1981 Time Use Study (Juster, Hill, Stafford, and Parsons, 1983), we estimate a path model of the amount of leisure time available to married women showing the effects of time spent in paid labor, age, number of children, and time spent on household labor on available leisure time. We estimate that womens responsibilities for paid work and unpaid household labor come at the expense of their leisure time. Paid work time has an estimated negative effect on both active and passive leisure time, while household labor time has an estimated direct negative effect on total leisure time. We speculate that because paid work and household tasks are requisite for most women today they must schedule leisure time around both activities.