Judee K. Burgoon

Toward a more robust theory and measure of social presence: review and suggested criteria

At a time of increased social usage of net and collaborative applications, a robust and detailed theory of social presence could contribute to our understanding of social behavior in mediated environments, allow researchers to predict and measure differences among media interfaces, and guide the design of new social environments and interfaces. A broader theory of social presence can guide more valid and reliable measures. The article reviews, classifies, and critiques existing theories and measures of social presence. A set of criteria and scope conditions is proposed to help remedy limitations in past theories and measures and to provide a contribution to a more robust theory and measure of social presence.

Nonverbal expectancy violations: Model elaboration and application to immediacy behaviors

Nonverbal expectancy violations theory holds that positive violations produce more favorable communication outcomes than conformity to expectations, while negative violations produce less favorable ones, and that reward characteristics of the communicator mediate the interpretation and evaluation of violations. The factors affecting expectancies and the consequences of violating them are reviewed and compared to other models (discrepancy‐arousal, arousal‐labeling, arousal‐valence, sequential functional) employing similar assumptions and mediating variables. An experiment extending the model domain to immediacy violations and to interactions with familiar as well as unfamiliar others had friend and stranger dyads (N=82) engage in discussions during which one member of each pair significantly increased immediacy, significantly reduced it, or conformed to normal levels. Nonimmedicacy violations produced lower credibility ratings than high immediacy or conformity to expectations for both friends and strangers...

Validation and measurement of the fundamental themes of relational communication

A recently advanced schema for relational communication proposes as many as 12 fundamental and distinctive themes underlying relational message exchange. Reported here are the results of three measurement studies using exploratory oblique and orthogonal factor analyses and confirmatory factor analysis. These offer empirical validation for seven to 10 of the themes. Additionally, results from seven experiments using the relational communication measure provide reliability estimates and predictive validity data. The final recommended measurement instrument is a 30‐item scale incorporating eight independent themes or clusters of themes.

Interpersonal Expectations, Expectancy Violations, and Emotional Communication:

In this article, key concepts and propositions of expectancy violations theory are explicated and then applied to emotional communication. It is proposed that emotional experience and expression can profitably be understood according to what experiences and expressions are expected in interpersonal relationships, the extent to which enacted expressions deviate positively or negatively from expectancies, the degree to which other types of expectancy violations engender emotional expressions, and the effects of deviating from entrenched patterns of emotional expression.

The Unwillingness-To-Communicate Scale: Development and Validation

The construct of unwillingness to communicate represents a global predisposition to avoid communication, whether due to apprehension, alienation, low self‐esteem, introversion, or other causes. The lines of research supporting the existence of the construct are discussed. The program of research leading to the present form of the Unwillingness‐to‐Communicate Scale is reported, including results of two studies that have provided reliability and validity data. Based on factor analysis results, a 20‐item instrument with two factors, reward and approach‐avoidance, is recommended for research use.

Interactivity in human–computer interaction: a study of credibility, understanding, and influence

Advancements in computer technology have allowed the development of human-appearing and -behaving virtual agents. This study examined if increased richness and anthropomorphism in interface design lead to computers being more influential during a decision-making task with a human partner. In addition, user experiences of the communication format, communication process, and the task partner were evaluated for their association with various features of virtual agents. Study participants completed the Desert Survival Problem (DSP) and were then randomly assigned to one of five different computer partners or to a human partner (who was a study confederate). Participants discussed each of the items in the DSP with their partners and were then asked to complete the DSP again. Results showed that computers were more influential than human partners but that the latter were rated more positively on social dimensions of communication than the former. Exploratory analysis of user assessments revealed that some features of human–computer interaction (e.g. utility and feeling understood) were associated with increases in anthropomorphic features of the interface. Discussion focuses on the relation between user perceptions, design features, and task outcomes.

Perceptions of power and interactional dominance in interpersonal relationships

This investigation uses dyadic power theory (Dunbar, 2000, 2004; Rollins & Bahr, 1976) to examine the relationship between dominance and power and the behavioral manifestations of power in close relationships. Ninety-seven couples (58 married, 39 cohabiting) completed a problem-solving task together while being videotaped. The videotapes were coded for a variety of verbal and nonverbal dominant control attempts including dysfluencies, interruptions, frequency of adaptor and illustrator gestures, vocal characteristics, and general perceptions of dominance. The results revealed that individuals’ perceptions of power led to more dominant communication behavior during discussions with their partner. Comparisons between the perceptions of participants and observers and the implications for future research are also discussed.

A Comparison of Classification Methods for Predicting Deception in Computer-Mediated Communication

The increased chance of deception in computer-mediated communication and the potential risk of taking action based on deceptive information calls for automatic detection of deception. To achieve the ultimate goal of automatic prediction of deception, we selected four common classification methods and empirically compared their performance in predicting deception. The deception and truth data were collected during two experimental studies. The results suggest that all of the four methods were promising for predicting deception with cues to deception. Among them, neural networks exhibited consistent performance and were robust across test settings. The comparisons also highlighted the importance of selecting important input variables and removing noise in an attempt to enhance the performance of classification methods. The selected cues offer both methodological and theoretical contributions to the body of deception and information systems research.

The Temporal Effects of Story and Statistical Evidence on Belief Change

An experiment investigated characteristics of evidence that influenced beliefs across multiple time periods. Respondents, after reading one of four written messages that crossed evidence type (story or statistical) with vividness (vivid or nonvivid), completed belief measures at one of three time intervals (immediate, 48-hour delay, or 1-week delay). Statistical evidence was found to be more persuasive than story evidence. Vivid and nonvivid statistical evidence were persuasive relative to the control at 48 hours, and vivid statistical evidence remained persuasive through 1 week. Neither form of story evidence was persuasive relative to the control at delayed time intervals.

Interpersonal Deception VII Behavioral Profiles of Falsification, Equivocation, and Concealment

Previous research on deception has typically examined how deceivers behave when falsifying information in a noninteractive context. Guided by Interpersonal Deception Theory, the authors propose that deception may take a variety of forms, reflecting differences in the way senders strategically control message information and the differences in the behavioral profiles accompanying those strategies. The current experiment examined the impact of deception type (falsification, concealment, equivocation), receiver suspicion, receiver expertise, and relational familiarity on strategic and nonstrategic behavior Two adult samples, novices and experts (military intelligence instructors), participated. Interviewers, half of whom were induced to be suspicious, followed a standard protocol of questions. Interviewees answered the first two questions truthfully and then enacted one of the deception forms. Participants evaluated one anothers behavior after the interview, and trained coders measured the nonverbal behavior No clear behavioral profile emerged for deception in general. Instead, behaviors associated with deception were strongly influenced by deception type, suspicion, and familiarity, suggesting that preinteractional and interactional features are important determinants of sender behavior. Of the deception types, participants rated equivocation as most brief, vague, and hesitant, whereas falsification was rated lowest on these characteristics. Behaviorally, senders were best able to suppress behavioral activity when equivocating and least able to when falsifying.