Judith Bennett

The Place of Subject Matter Knowledge in Pedagogical Content Knowledge: A case study of South African teachers teaching the amount of substance and chemical equilibrium

This paper presents two South African case studies designed to explore the influence of subject matter knowledge on pedagogical content knowledge (PCK). In the first case study on teaching the mole in two township schools, the findings illustrate that the participant teachers favoured procedural approaches at the expense of conceptual understanding. The second case study examines the teaching of chemical equilibrium to students on a bridging programme in a tertiary institution. Through these data the authors present a model to assist in understanding the amalgamation of subject matter knowledge (SMK) with other teacher knowledge domains to produce what we describe as ‘manifestations’. The model was useful in interpreting the teachers’ practice, especially to highlight the role of SMK, and therefore offers interesting insights into the nature of PCK and its influence on science teaching.

Context‐based Chemistry: The Salters approach

This paper describes briefly the development and key features of one of the major context‐based courses for upper high school students, Salters Advanced Chemistry. It goes on to consider the research evidence on the impact of the course, focusing on teachers’ views, and, in particular, on students’ affective and cognitive responses. The research evidence indicates that students respond positively to the context‐based approach adopted in Salters Advanced Chemistry, and that they develop levels of understanding of chemical ideas comparable with those taking more conventional courses. Finally, issues to do with the development and evaluation of large‐scale curriculum projects are considered.

Would You Want to Talk to a Scientist at a Party? High school students’ attitudes to school science and to science

The present paper describes a four‐year project involving the development of a new instrument, the Attitudes to School Science and Science instrument, and its use to collect baseline attitudinal data from 280 students aged 11, 14, and 16 years. A key feature of the instrument is that it collects both descriptive and explanatory data in a pencil‐and‐paper format. The data gathered are probed in detail for explanatory insights into features that have emerged from more recent research on attitudes to science, in particular the suggestions that students view science outside school more positively than their experiences in science lessons, and that the early years of secondary education (ages approximately 11–14 years) are the most crucial in shaping attitudes. The study shows that positive attitudes to school science decline significantly between the ages of 11 and 14 years, with little appreciable downward change beyond this and, in some cases, a slight upturn. Female students display less positive attitudes and less clear‐cut views on a variety of aspects of science. A sense of science being important in general terms, although not having much appeal for individual students, also emerged clearly from the data. The paper suggests that attitudinal instruments have a role to play in research, but that these need to be complemented by studies of detailed features of schools that may influence attitudes, some of which may not be apparent from data collected from students.

Talking science: the research evidence on the use of small-group discussions in science teaching

This paper reports the findings of two systematic reviews of the use and effects of small group discussions in high school science teaching. Ninety‐four studies were included in an overview (systematic map) of work in the area, and 24 studies formed the basis of the in‐depth reviews. The reviews indicate that there is considerable diversity in the topics used to promote small group discussions. They also demonstrate that students often struggle to formulate and express coherent arguments, and demonstrate a low level of engagement with tasks. The reviews suggest that groups function more purposefully, and understanding improves most, when specifically constituted such that differing views are represented, when some form of training is provided for students on effective group work, and when help in structuring discussions is provided in the form of “cues”. Single‐sex groups function more purposefully than mixed‐sex groups, though improvements in understanding are independent of gender composition of groups. Finally, the reviews demonstrate very clearly that, for small group discussions to be effective, teachers and students need to be given explicit teaching in the skills associated with the development of arguments and the characteristics associated with effective group discussions. In addition to the substantive findings, the paper also reports on key features of the methods employed to gather and analyse data. Of particular note are the two contrasting approaches to data analysis, one adopting a grounded theory approach and the other drawing on established methods of discourse analysis.

Systematic Reviews of Research in Science Education: Rigour or Rigidity?.

This paper explores the role of systematic reviews of research literature and considers what they have to offer research in science education. The origins of systematic reviews are described, together with the reasons why they are currently attracting considerable attention in the research literature. An overview is presented of the key features of systematic review methods, illustrating with examples from two systematic reviews undertaken in science education — one on aspects of small‐group work in science lessons, and the other on the effects on pupils of context‐based and Science–Technology–Society approaches. Issues raised by systematic reviews in terms of characterizing research studies and making judgements about their quality are then discussed. Finally, systematic reviews are compared with more traditional narrative reviews to identify ways in which they can contribute to the undertaking of research studies in a science education.

Practical work at the upper high school level: the evaluation of a new model of assessment

This paper reports on a research study into the assessment of practical work at the upper high school level in Ireland. The principal aim of the study was to evaluate the effectiveness of a new assessment model for practical work, which involved the use of a visiting examiner. Data were gathered by three means: a comparative analysis of the marks obtained on the written questions and performance in the practical assessment of over 350 students in each of chemistry and physics in 30 schools; an analysis using Blooms Taxonomy of both the existing and the new models for assessing practical abilities; and the use of questionnaires with teachers and examiners involved in the study. The main finding was that the new model provided a reliable and valid assessment of a range of practical abilities, which was also economical of time and resources. Additionally, there was evidence of benefits to the examiners and teachers involved in terms of their own professional development.

Schools That Make a Difference to Post-Compulsory Uptake of Physical Science Subjects: Some comparative case studies in England

This paper presents the findings of the qualitative component of a combined methods research study that explores a range of individual and school factors that influence the uptake of chemistry and physics in post-compulsory study in England. The first phase involves using the National Pupil Database to provide a sampling frame to identify four matched pairs of high-uptake and low-uptake schools by salient school factors. Case studies of these eight schools indicate that students employ selection strategies related to their career aspirations, their sense of identity and tactics, and their prior experience. The school factors influencing subject choice relate to school management, student support and guidance, and student empowerment. The most notable differences between students in high-uptake and low-uptake schools are that students in high-uptake schools appear to make a proactive choice in relation to career aspirations, rather than a reactive choice on the basis of past experience. Schools with a high uptake offer a diverse science curriculum in the final two years of compulsory study, set higher examination entry requirements for further study and, crucially, provide a range of opportunities for students to interact with the world of work and to gain knowledge and experience of science-related careers.

Bringing Science to Life

This chapter addresses four important areas in the use and effects of context-based approaches in the teaching of science. The first part of the chapter considers the nature of context-based approaches. The second part of the chapter draws on a synthesis of a range of research studies to explore the impact of context-based approaches on student’s cognitive and affective responses to science ideas. The third part of the chapter considers some of the issues raised by the review on research into the effects of context-based approaches.

The Inter-relationship of Science and Religion: A typology of engagement

This study explores whether the religious background of students affects their opinions about and attitudes to engaging with scientific explanations of the origins of the universe and of life. The study took place in four English secondary schools representing three different contexts (Christian faith-based; non-faith with majority Muslim catchment; and non-faith, mixed catchment). It comprised questionnaires and focus groups with over 200 students aged 14–16, supplemented by teacher interviews. The analysis approach was informed by grounded theory and resulted in the development of an engagement typology, which has been set in the context of the cross-cultural border crossing literature. It divides students into categories depending on both the nature and amount of engagement they were prepared to have with the relationship between science and religion. The model takes into account where students sit on four dimensions. These assess whether a students preferred knowledge base is belief-based or fact-based; their tolerance of uncertainty (do they have a need for resolution?); their open mindedness (are they unquestioning or inquiring?); and whether they conceptualise science and religion as being in conflict or harmony. Many Muslim students resisted engagement because of conflicting religious beliefs. Teachers did not always appreciate the extent to which this topic troubled some students who needed help to accommodate clashes between science and their religious beliefs. It is suggested that increased appreciation of the complexity represented by their students can guide a teacher towards an appropriate approach when covering potentially sensitive topics such as the theory of evolution.

Students’ Knowledge Acquisition and Ability to Apply Knowledge into Different Science Contexts in Two Different Independent Learning Settings.

Abstract Background: Recently, there is a growing interest in independent learning approaches globally. This is, at least in part, due to an increased demand for so-called ‘21st century skills’ and the potential of independent learning to improve student skills to better prepare them for the future. Purpose: This paper reports a study that explored the effectiveness of two different independent learning approaches: (i) guided independent learning and (ii) unguided independent learning with independent research, in enabling students in an undergraduate Macromolecules course to acquire knowledge in one chemistry context and apply it successfully in another. Sample: The study involved 144 chemistry students commencing their first term of undergraduate study at a northern university in England. Students completed pre- and post-intervention tests containing 10 diagnostic questions, of which 4 measured students’ knowledge acquisition in one context and 6 measured their ability to apply it in another. Design and methods: Diagnostic questions had been identified using a Delphi approach. Paired t-tests and chi-square tests were used to analyse the significance of any change in students’ responses to the diagnostic questions and the number of responses evidencing misconceptions, respectively. Results: Whilst guided independent learning settings were found to improve students’ knowledge and ability to apply that knowledge in novel situations, unguided independent learning had no statistically significant effect. Unguided independent learning was also linked to a statistically significant increase in the number of student misconceptions in one of the diagnostic questions. Conclusions: The results of this study show that guidance in independent learning activities is a key necessity for effective learning in higher education. This paper has strong relevance and high significance to tertiary STEM education, especially in the light of increased importance of teaching, such as the Teaching Excellence Framework in the UK, and shifts to more independent learning activities.