Judith Glück

Psychological Wisdom Research: Commonalities and Differences in a Growing Field

Wisdom represents a fruitful topic for psychological investigations for at least two reasons. First, the study of wisdom emphasizes the search for the continued optimization and the further cultural evolution of the human condition. Second, it exemplifies the collaboration of cognitive, emotional, and motivational processes. The growth and scope of psychological wisdom research over the past few decades demonstrate that it is possible to investigate this complex construct with empirical rigor. Since the 1970s, five main areas have been established: lay definitions of wisdom, conceptualizing and measuring wisdom, understanding the development of wisdom, investigating the plasticity of wisdom, and applying psychological knowledge about wisdom in life contexts.

Looking back across the life span: A life story account of the reminiscence bump

The reminiscence bump is a robust finding in the autobiographical memory literature: Adults recall more events from the second and third decades of life than from other periods. Berntsen and Rubin (2004; Rubin & Berntsen, 2003) proposed a life script account of the reminiscence bump. We extend the life script account by taking a theory-based, life span developmental approach, proposing a life story account for the bump. This account predicts that events in the reminiscence bump are characterized not only by positive valence, but also by high perceived control and high perceived influence on later development. Predictions from the life story account were confirmed in analyses of 3,541 life events collected from 659 participants 50–90 years of age. Only high-perceived-control positive events showed a reminiscence bump, and these events were rated as more influential on later development than were events showing any other combination of valence and perceived control. Findings are discussed in terms of a theoretical extension of the life script account embracing (1) principles of life span development and (2) the personal creation of a life story that helps to organize autobiographical memory.

Virtual and augmented reality as spatial ability training tools

Virtual reality (VR) and augmented reality (AR -- overlaying virtual objects onto the real world) offer interesting and wide spread possibilities to study different components of human behaviour and cognitive processes. One aspect of human cognition that has been frequently studied using VR technology is spatial ability. Research ranges from training studies that investigate whether and/or how spatial ability can be improved by using these new technologies to studies that focus on specific aspects of spatial ability for which VR is an efficient investigational tool. In this paper we first review studies that used VR technologies to study different aspects of spatial ability. Then results and findings will be presented from one of the first large-scale studies (215 students) that investigated the potential of an AR application to train spatial ability.

Spatial Strategy Selection: Interesting Incremental Information

The aim of this article is to show that individuals differ in the way they solve spatial tasks of all kinds, and both research on and measurement of spatial ability could profit from an integration of strategy aspects. We first review evidence for both intra- and interindividual strategy differences (including gender differences) in 3 domains of spatial cognition: spatial ability tests, mental rotation, and environmental orientation and navigation. Then, we present additional evidence from 2 of our own studies. Finally, we discuss what a focus on strategy aspects could add to basic research and to spatial ability testing, and we give some concrete suggestions for integrating strategy assessment into standard spatial tests.

How to measure wisdom: content, reliability, and validity of five measures.

Wisdom is a field of growing interest both inside and outside academic psychology, and researchers are increasingly interested in using measures of wisdom in their work. However, wisdom is a highly complex construct, and its various operationalizations are based on quite different definitions. Which measure a researcher chooses for a particular research project may have a strong influence on the results. This study compares four well-established measures of wisdom—the Self-Assessed Wisdom Scale (Webster, 2003, 2007), the Three-Dimensional Wisdom Scale (Ardelt, 2003), the Adult Self-Transcendence Inventory (Levenson et al., 2005), and the Berlin Wisdom Paradigm (Baltes and Smith, 1990; Baltes and Staudinger, 2000)—with respect to content, reliability, factorial structure, and construct validity (relationships to wisdom nomination, interview-based wisdom ratings, and correlates of wisdom). The sample consisted of 47 wisdom nominees and 123 control participants. While none of the measures performed “better” than the others by absolute standards, recommendations are given for researchers to select the most suitable measure for their substantive interests. In addition, a “Brief Wisdom Screening Scale” is introduced that contains those 20 items from the three self-report scales that were most highly correlated with the common factor across the scales.

Training-related changes in solution strategy in a spatial test: An application of item response models

Abstract Item response models were used to study changes in strategy use in a spatial task induced by a mental rotation training. Application of the Linear Logistic Model with Relaxed Assumptions (LLRA) showed differential training-related improvement in different item types, with the strongest improvement in items requiring spatial cognition. Application of Mixed Rasch Models (MRM) showed two latent classes of participants at pretest—one using a spatial strategy, the other using a pattern comparison strategy. Theoretical strategy classifications showed that the training caused almost all participants who used the pattern strategy at pretest to shift to a spatial strategy. Results are discussed both from a substantive and from a methodological perspective.

“Gratitude Is With Me All the Time”: How Gratitude Relates to Wisdom

Objectives. This study investigated the relationship of gratitude to wisdom. Both constructs are conceptually related to self-reflectivity, but they differ in their emphasis on extrapersonal resources. Previous wisdom research has focused mainly on intrapersonal capacities. Method. In Study 1, 47 wisdom nominees and 47 control participants were interviewed about their most difficult and best life event and filled out a questionnaire on sources of gratitude. Study 2 was a quantitative study (N = 443) of the relationship between a wisdom scale and scale measures and individual sources of gratitude. Results. Significantly more wisdom nominees expressed feelings of gratitude spontaneously in their interview. Wisdom nominees reported gratitude for their life in general, religion, and partner more often than control participants. In Study 2, wisdom was related to all gratitude scales and to similar sources of gratitude as in Study 1. Both studies found gender differences in gratitude but not wisdom. Discussion. Two important implications of these findings are that wisdom entails an appreciation of life and its experiences, especially the growth opportunities that may result from negative events, and that there may be substantial differences between male and female pathways to wisdom.

The MORE Life Experience Model: A Theory of the Development of Personal Wisdom

Why do a few people become wiser in the course of their lives – while most of us do not? This chapter presents a conceptual model of the development of wisdom, based on previous work on wisdom, life-span development, growth from negative experiences, and autobiographical memory. The core assumption is that life challenges are the main catalysts of the development of wisdom – but only in individuals who bring certain resources with them. These resources are a sense of mastery, openness, reflectivity, and emotion regulation/empathy – in short, MORE. The chapter lays out the theoretical background of the model, discusses each resource in detail, and describes how the resources influence which life experiences people encounter, how they appraise them and deal with them, and how they integrate them into their life story. The model is illustrated by data from two empirical studies. The first study investigated people’s autobiographical narratives of situations in which they had been wise. The second study, which is currently in progress, tests predictions from the MORE Life Experience Model directly.

Hard-Earned Wisdom: Exploratory Processing of Difficult Life Experience Is Positively Associated with Wisdom.

Laypersons and experts believe that wisdom is cultivated through a diverse range of positive and negative life experiences. Yet, not all individuals with life experience are wise. We propose that one possible determinant of growth in wisdom from life experience is self-reflection. In a life span sample of adults (N = 94) ranging from 26 to 92 years of age, we examined wisdom’s relationship to self-reflection by investigating “why” people report reflecting on the past (i.e., reminiscence functions) and “how” they reflect within autobiographical memories of difficult life events (i.e., autobiographical reasoning). We assessed wisdom using self-report, performance, and nomination approaches. Results indicated that wisdom was unrelated to the frequency of self-reflection; however, wiser people differed from others in their (a) reasons for reminiscence and (b) mode of autobiographical reasoning. Across 3 methods for assessing wisdom, wisdom was positively associated with exploratory processing of difficult life experience (meaning-making, personal growth), whereas redemptive processing (positive emotional reframing, event resolution) was positively associated with adjustment. This study suggests that developmental pathways in the wake of adversity may be partially determined by how individuals self-reflectively process significant life experiences.

Who Knows Who Is Wise? Self and Peer Ratings of Wisdom

OBJECTIVES This study investigated relationships between three measures of wisdom: self-ratings, peer ratings, and a self-report scale. We expected to find a zero or negative correlation between the self-rating and the average peer rating and low positive correlations of both to the self-report scale. We also tested whether there would be more convergence among measures in the top scorers. METHOD A total of 179 members of 17 university departments were rated by their department colleagues with respect to wisdom; about half of them also rated themselves and filled out a wisdom self-report scale (Three-Dimensional Wisdom Scale [3D-WS]; Ardelt, M. (2003)). RESULTS There were no significant relationships among the three measures of wisdom, neither in the total sample nor among the top scorers. DISCUSSION Depending on the focus of research, peer ratings may be a more suitable measure of wisdom than self-report scales or performance measures.