Judith K. Blackshaw

Acute Stress Hyperglycemia in Cats Is Associated with Struggling and Increased Concentrations of Lactate and Norepinephrine

We characterized the changes in blood glucose concentrations in healthy cats exposed to a short stressor and determined the associations between glucose concentrations, behavioral indicators of stress, and blood variables implicated in stress hyperglycemia (plasma glucose, lactate, insulin, glucagon, cortisol, epinephrine, and norepinephrine concentrations). Twenty healthy adult cats with normal glucose tolerance had a 5-minute spray bath. Struggling and vocalization were the most frequent behavioral responses. There was a strong relationship between struggling and concentrations of glucose and lactate. Glucose and lactate concentrations increased rapidly and significantly in all cats in response to bathing, with peak concentrations occurring at the end of the bath (glucose baseline 83 mg/dL, mean peak 162 mg/dL; lactate baseline 6.3 mg/dL, mean peak 64.0 mg/dL). Glucose response resolved within 90 minutes in 12 of the 20 cats. Changes in mean glucose concentrations were strongly correlated with changes in mean lactate (r = .84; P < .001) and mean norepinephrine concentrations (r = .81; P < .001). There was no significant correlation between changes in mean glucose concentrations and changes in mean insulin, glucagon, cortisol, or epinephrine concentrations. Struggling and lactate concentrations were predictive of hyperglycemia. Gluconeogenesis stimulated by lactate release is the likely mechanism for hyperglycemia in healthy cats in this model of acute stress. Careful handling techniques that minimize struggling associated with blood collection may reduce the incidence of stress hyperglycemia in cats.

Behavioural observations of piglets undergoing tail docking, teeth clipping and ear notching

Abstract The behaviour of 279 newborn Large White × Landrace hybrid piglets in a Specific Pathogen Free Piggery (University of Queensland, Australia) was recorded during and after routine management practices of tail docking, ear notching and teeth clipping. The behaviours were recorded at the time of the procedure and then at 30 s intervals for 2 min after completion of the procedure. Piglets that received one or all of the procedures behaved differently ( P P The behaviours observed were often correlated with a particular procedure: tail docking caused more tail jamming and wagging; head shaking occurred most with ear notching; teeth clipping caused more teeth champing. Grunting during and in the first 60 s after the procedure was most frequent for piglets that had their tails docked. There was a high degree of individual variation within each litter for piglets undergoing the same procedure. The frequency of behaviours was greatest immediately after the procedure. The statistical differences evident in the period 0–30 s decreased over time and eventually disappeared after approximately 2 min. Restraint of the piglet appeared to be stressful in itself. However, restraint combined with a procedure resulted in an alteration of the behaviour from the basal levels shown by piglets that were only handled. This change in behaviour could indicate that routine management procedures (although transient) are stressful to the piglet and warrant investigation into ways to alleviate this distress.

The effect of a fixed or free toy on the growth rate and aggressive behaviour of weaned pigs and the influence of hierarchy on initial investigation of the toys

Abstract Thirty-two groups (12 pigs per group) of Large White × Landrace × Duroc weaners (4–5 weeks) were mixed and weaned into pens. The 32 groups (14 groups all female, 16 groups all male, two groups mixed) were randomly assigned to one of four treatments (eight groups per treatment): (1) control group with no toys; (2) fixed toy only hanging from the ceiling; (3) free toy only on the pen floor; (4) fixed toy and free toy. The toy was a shaped solid metal, out-dated sow neck tether covered with hard plastic piping. Relative growth rates (%) for the weaner pigs were calculated as [ ln (W 2 − W 1 (t 2 − t 1 ) ] × 100 (Brody, S., 1945. Bioenergetics and Growth. Reinhold, New York) for observations taken over a 3 week observation period when temperatures ranged from 24 to 30°C (December-March 1995). The presence of fixed and free toys caused no significant change in weaner growth rates (F = 1.68; P = 0.19). Growth rate was also shown to be unrelated to hierarchy (F = 0.22; P = 0.64) and to sex (rs = −0.13; P = 0.49). Investigatory behaviour was measured as (i) the length of time from toy introduction to first touch and (ii) the order sequence in which pigs touched the toy. Kaplan-Meier survival analysis of the time to first touch showed that over 75% of the weaner pigs touched the toy within 5 min of its introduction to the pen. Comparison of the survival curves for treatments 2 and 3 showed that the weaners in treatment 3 were slower to investigate the free toy (Wilcoxon 0.11; log-rank 0.04). The curves for time to investigate the fixed toy and the free toy in treatment 4 differed during the earlier time periods, with the weaners exhibiting more interest in the fixed toy (Wilcoxon 0.04; log-rank 0.06). Dominance hierarchy and time taken to touch a toy were not correlated except for a small positive relationship with order sequence in treatment 2 (rs = 0.22; P = 0.03). Instantaneous scanning five times at hourly intervals each week for 3 weeks recorded scores for eight behavioural states: recumbency, stationary, play with fixed toy, play with free toy, active, maintenance, chewing pen fixtures and aggression. Aggression was the only behaviour to show consistent differences between treatment groups. The control group had a higher level of aggression than the toy groups over the 3 week observation period (P No pattern in the occurrence of behaviour over the time periods in each week was shown, but in the toy treatment groups changes between the week mean scores for the following behaviours were seen: stationary, play with fixed toy, play with free toy, active, maintenance, biting pen fixtures and aggression. The level of play with fixed and free toys tended to decrease over the 3 weeks and play with the fixed toy in treatment 2 was generally higher than play with the free toy in treatment 3 (P

An overview of types of aggressive behaviour in dogs and methods of treatment

Abstract In 223 cases of dogs presented to a specialist behavioural clinic in Brisbane, Australia, 87 (39%) were for severe aggression. The classes of aggression included dominance (31.6%), territorial (29%), predatory (12.3%), intermale (12.3%), sibling rivalry (7.9%), fear biting (6%) and idiopathic rage (0.9%). The breeds most represented which attacked humans were the Bull Terrier (16%), German Shepherd and crosses (15%), Cattle dog breeds (Blue Heeler and crosses, 9.2%), Terrier breeds (9.2%), Labrador (8%), Poodle and Cocker Spaniel (both 5.7%) and Rottweiler (4.6%). The dangerous dog list put out by the local Brisbane City Council includes the first three breeds mentioned and the Rottweiler as the top four breeds causing aggression problems. Hospital records in Victoria and Queensland confirm that most damage is caused to humans by Bull Terriers and German Shepherds. Many breeds similar to those in our study are also represented in American data on aggressive breeds. Treatments included obedience training only, restraint only, obedience and restraint, synthetic progestins and obedience, castration, progestins and obedience, castration and obedience, use of chlorpromazine and as a last resort, euthanasia (12.6%). Entire males formed the largest group (44%), followed by castrated males and females (both 21%) and spayed females (15%). Several breeds (Boxer, Briand, Samoyed and St. Bernard) only attacked other animals and birds. This study reinforces evidence that social disruption is caused by aggressive dogs, but it also indicates that many responsible clients seek advice on how to deal with this behavioural problem.

Comparison of behaviour patterns of sows and litters in a farrowing crate and a farrowing pen

The behaviours of eight sows (Large White×Landrace) and litters housed in a farrowing crate (600–800 mm width adjustable crates in a 2130 mm × 1850 mm pen) were compared with the behaviours of eight sows and litters in a farrowing pen (2130 mm × 1850 mm) using data from real-time videotapes. Each sow and litter was videotaped on day 1 or 2 after parturition and on six other occasions between days 6 and 30. Piglet activity was similar in the farrowing crate and the farrowing pen systems both in the pen area and at the udder. The farrowing pen piglets rested in the pen area nearly three times as long as the farrowing crate animals (1003 ± 75 vs 315 ± 40; P<0.01; all frequencies per 3 h tape). Piglets in both systems spent a similar amount of time resting at the udder; however, those in the farrowing crate, spent twice as long under the heat lamp (1350 ± 68 vs 671 ± 58; P<0.01). Sows in the farrowing crate were less than half as active as sows in the farrowing pen system when lying down (stretching, kicking, shaking or rolling) (frequencies per 3 h tape, 10.2 ± 1.2 vs 23.9 ± 1.5; P<0.05). Sows in both systems sat, stood up and ate the same amount of time. The sucking activity duration (slow sucking and rapid sucking) of the piglets was significantly longer in the farrowing crate (3.1 ± 0.1 min vs 2.3 ± 0.1 min; P<0.01; duration per 3 h tape). Mortality rates of piglets in the farrowing pen system was 32% vs 14% in the farrowing crate (t(14)=2.116; P=0.053) which suggested that the farrowing pen system was more hazardous for piglet welfare than the farrowing crate for the breed of pig used in this study.

A Review of the Factors Influencing the Aggressive and Agonistic Behaviour of the Domestic Pig

He literature describing aggressive and agonistic interactions between domestic pigs is reviewed. This is followed by a review of the effects of fighting in pigs and the environmental factors which affect levels of aggression in groups of pigs. We conclude that the mixing of unacquainted pigs should be kept to a minimum as this results in high levels of aggression, leading to physical injury and physiological changes. There have been contradictory results from mixing evenly and unevenly weighted pigs. The size of the mixed groups seems to have little effect on levels of agression; however, in the studies that have been carried out, group sizes have not been very different. Tranquillisers appear to be effective in reducing aggression, but they would be expensive to use on a regular basis. The pheromone 5a-androst- 16-en-3-one reduces aggression and acts as a growth promotant, but it has only been used experimentally. Competition for feed and space leads to increased aggression, but the provision of barriers between feeding animals and secure areas, into which pigs can escape, appear to reduce aggression. It is suggested that further work should be carried out into pen design as this seems to be a simple method of reducing aggression between animals.

A long-term study of elderly people in nursing homes with visiting and resident dogs

Abstract Three nursing homes in the Brisbane area took part in the study. The Moreton Bay Nursing Care Unit (20 females, 11 males) had a visiting dog (each week), the Returned Services League War Veterans Home (24 females, eight males) had a resident dog and the Wheeler Garden Settlement (25 females, seven males) the visiting researcher only (control). A desexed female whippet, 11 months old was used in this study. Tension and confusion were reduced in the nursing home with a resident dog ( x 2 = 21.18, d.f. = 10, P = 0.02; x 2 = 35.42, d.f. = 10, P = 0.0001, respectively). The resident dog group showed significant decreases in depression ( x 2 = 31.19, d.f. = 10, P = 0.0005) as did the control group ( x 2 = 29.8, d.f. = 10, P = 0.0009; x 2 = 23.4, d.f. = 10, P = 0.009). Significant increases in vigour were found in all three nursing homes (visiting dog, x 2 = 43.91, d.f. = 10, P = 0.0005; resident dog, x 2 = 42.92, d.f. = 10, P = 0.0005; control, x 2 = 38.52, d.f. = 10, P = 0.0005). Fatigue decreased significantly in the visiting and resident dog groups ( x 2 = 21.58, d.f. = 10, P = 0.02; x 2 = 19.45, d.f. = 10, P = 0.03, respectively). This long-term study indicates that there are many benefits from having a resident dog in a nursing home. However, if this is not an option, visiting dogs and/or visiting people improve the lives of nursing home residents.

The behaviour of group penned and individually caged laboratory rabbits

The behaviour of groups of rabbits housed in pens and individually caged rabbits was recorded and analysed. New Zealand Whites, Lop Crosses, and Dutch breeds, both female and castrated males, were observed. Locomotory behaviour accounted for 19% of penned rabbit behaviours and 23.2% of caged rabbit behaviours. Maintenance behaviours were more commonly observed in caged rabbits (44.5% of observed behaviours) than in penned rabbits (25.3%). The reverse was true for comfort behaviours (23% and 40.6%, respectively). Marking and investigatory behaviours were observed more often in penned rabbits (12.6%) than in caged rabbits (3%). Agonistic behaviours occurred only in penned rabbits (2.5% of observed behaviours) while stereotypic behaviours were only observed in caged rabbits (6.3%). Caged rabbits were commonly engaged in locomotory behaviour early and late in the day (09:00-10:00 h and 15:00-17:00 h). Resting (maintenance behaviour) and grooming (comfort behaviour) were observed more often in the middle of the day (10:00-12:00 h). Significantly (P<0.01) more scratching, head shaking, sneezing, stretching, and yawning (comfort behaviours) occurred in penned rabbits than in caged rabbits. Penned housing systems are more acceptable than caged systems but the negative aspects of pens should be addressed.

Some behavioural deviations in weaned domestic pigs: persistent inguinal nose thrusting, and tail and ear biting

Groups of pigs were observed from weaning to marketing for the incidence of tail and/or ear biting and persistent inguinal nose thrusting. The 16 groups included single and mixed litters, single or mixed-sex ratios, and comprised up to 12 pigs; 14 of the groups showed biting behaviour and 12 groups showed persistent inguinal nose thrusting behaviour. The onset of biting appeared from 0 to 44 days after weaning, and persistent inguinal nose thrusting was first observed 4 to 22 days after weaning. There was a significant relationship between the number of pigs biting and being bitten in a group. The high ranks tend to bite middle and low ranks more than expected, the middle ranks bite other middle ranks more than expected, and low ranks bite the least. Within any rank there was no difference between male and females biting or being bitten. The most common situation was to have, in a group, some pigs which only tail bit, others that only ear bit, and others which both tail and ear bit. It is suggested that biting is a learned response spread by visual communication, so that visual barriers around affected groups may help to limit the spread of an outbreak. In persistent inguinal nose thrusting behaviour, rank was important, as the top ranking pigs were the most most likely to show persistent inguinal nose thrusting. Persistent inguinal nose thrusting may have its origin in udder seeking, exploratory or rooting behaviour, but becomes used mainly by dominant pigs. The behaviour is halted by the pig which received the nose thrusts moving away.

The behaviour of laboratory colony cats and their reactions to a familiar and unfamiliar person

The behaviour of a colony of eight laboratory cats and their reactions to a familiar and unfamiliar person were recorded and analysed. Seven of the cats were Domestic Shorthairs and one was a Persian. All were male and only one was intact. Maintenance behaviours (resting, sitting, drinking, eating, defaecating and urinating) were the most commonly observed behaviours (36% of observations). Comfort (grooming, scratching, sneezing, coughing, head shaking, stretching and yawning) and locomotory behaviours (walking, running, jumping from floor to shelf and shelf to floor) were also commonly observed (30% and 24.5%, respectively). Agonistic behaviours were rarely observed (1%). Other behaviours recorded included marking and investigatory (clawing, scratching post, rubbing cage, anal sniff, body sniff, wall/floor licking; 4%), play (2%) and vocalisation behaviours (2%). Walking, jumping, eating, drinking, scratching, rubbing, defaecating and urinating were observed most often between 08:00 h and 09:00 h. Running, walking, resting and sitting occurred most often on the shelves in the cage. The cats made more direct contacts with the unfamiliar person than with the familiar person. Significantly (P<0.01) more attention behaviours (rubs against person, claws person, stands and watches, jumps to floor, stretches head out to person, lies on floor near person) were observed on the first day of the human-cat study than on the second and third days for both the familiar and unfamiliar person.