Judith R. Harrison

Educational Accommodations for Students with Behavioral Challenges: A Systematic Review of the Literature.

Educational policies mandate the consideration of accommodations so that students with disabilities become proficient in the objectives outlined by state academic content standards and demonstrate proficiency on high-stakes assessments. However, neither policies nor empirical research provide sufficient guidance for educators to effectively select and implement accommodations. This study reviews the effectiveness of accommodations for students in the special education eligibility category of emotional disturbance and those with diagnoses of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). First, we propose definitions that delineate accommodations from modifications and interventions. Next, we identify strategies that could serve as potential accommodations for this population. Next, we conduct a systematic literature review and calculate effect sizes to evaluate the effectiveness of the included strategies. Finally, we review the evidence to determine whether each included strategy meets the proposed definition of an accommodation. Although several potential strategies are beneficial to youth with ADHD and/or emotional and behavioral disorders, this review indicates that very few purported accommodations actually meet all the criteria in the definition of accommodations , and there is very little evidence supporting the effectiveness of commonly recommended accommodations for youth with behavioral challenges. Our critique of the state of the science on accommodations highlights several important issues that can be used to inform current research and practice in schools.

Improvement Rate Differences of Academic Interventions for Students With Emotional and Behavioral Disorders

Academic interventions for students with emotional and behavioral disorders (EBD) is a critical area of practice and one that has not been fully developed by large-scale research. Students with EBD are characterized by an ability to achieve academically but demonstrate a failure to do so. Some research on effective instructional practices for students with EBD does exist, but the predominance of single-case research in this area does not typically demonstrate or report a statistical effect size, making the selection and application of effective instructional strategies sometimes difficult. This article provides a thorough review of the existing research on instructional interventions for students with EBD and calculates effect sizes so that recommending effective instructional practices is more easily accomplished. The authors found 16 “types” of academic interventions and reported the individual and mean improvement rate differences.

Common Problem Behaviors of Children and Adolescents in General Education Classrooms in the United States

The majority of incidence and prevalence studies on childhood behavioral problems report the occurrence of mental health disorders under diagnostic categories. A few studies report prevalence of specific behavior problems identified through direct observation, teacher surveys, or analyses of office discipline referrals. However, each possesses limitations that may be informed by data that report the occurrence of specific behavior problems at the classroom level. The rapidly increasing use of multitiered models of prevention and intervention will benefit from data of prevalence of problem behaviors. The purpose of this study was to identify the “most common” problem behaviors in classrooms in the United States as reported by teachers on a broadband rating scale with a demographically representative sample of 3,600 children and adolescents. Results indicate 17 common problem behaviors of children and adolescents, each in four behavioral domains. Interesting findings include behaviors associated with anxiety, learning problems, and distractibility as the most commonly addressed by teachers in the classroom as opposed to the most frequently addressed by administrators, such as aggression. Implications are discussed for policy makers, teacher educators, administrators, and teachers.

Behaviors That Discriminate ADHD in Children and Adolescents: Primary Symptoms, Symptoms of Comorbid Conditions, or Indicators of Functional Impairment?

Objective: The objectives of this study were to evaluate whether behaviors that differentiate children and adolescents with ADHD from those without are related to the primary diagnostic criteria (i.e., inattention and impulsivity—hyperactivity), symptoms of comorbid conditions, functional impairment, or a combination, and to determine whether behaviors that discriminate are consistent between the key developmental stages of childhood and adolescence. Method: Parents and teachers rated children and adolescents with a formal diagnosis of ADHD and those without any mental, physical, or emotional disorders on the multidimensional Behavior Assessment System for Children (2nd ed., BASC-2). Results: Results indicated that behaviors that discriminate children and adolescents with ADHD from those without were associated with primary symptoms, symptoms of comorbid conditions, and indicators of functional impairment. Teachers rated atypicality as the strongest discriminator of children with ADHD from those without and learning problems as the strongest discriminator of adolescents. Parents rated hyperactivity as the strongest discriminator for children and attention problems for adolescents. Activities of daily living was the third strongest discriminator of adolescents as rated by parents. Conclusions: Findings supported the need for a multidimensional view of ADHD that adds emphasis to issues of functional impairment in routine, daily activities important to success in school and interpersonally. Findings showed that conceptualizing and assessing behaviors demonstrated by children and adolescents with ADHD as a whole instead of only equating a diagnosis of ADHD to hyperactivity, inattention, and impulsivity will establish a foundation for understanding, interpreting, and addressing students’ academic and behavioral needs across the home and school. (J. of Att. Dis. 2011; 15(2) 147-160)

Interpreting the Evidence for Effective Interventions to Increase the Academic Performance of Students With ADHD: Relevance of the Statistical Significance Controversy

This article reviews the literature on interventions targeting the academic performance of students with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and does so within the context of the statistical significance testing controversy. Both the arguments for and against null hypothesis statistical significance tests are reviewed. Recent standards promulgated by both the American Psychological Association and more recently by the American Educational Research Association are discussed. The ADHD literature is reviewed with respect to reporting of statistical, practical, and clinical significance and to the reporting of explicit, direct comparisons of obtained effect sizes with those in the related prior literature. It is suggested that a greater emphasis on (a) effect size reporting and (b) replicability comparisons will better enable practitioners to select evidence-based educational interventions.

Social Acceptability of Five Screening Instruments for Social, Emotional, and Behavioral Challenges.

Social, emotional, and behavioral (SEB) screening occurs in only two percent of our schools. This is unfortunate because universal screening is linked to prevention and early intervention with emotional and behavioral disorders (EBD) in children and youth, a population who continues to experience a plethora of poor outcomes. The social acceptability (often characterized incompletely as social validity) of SEB screening tools is suggested to contribute to their adoption and use; thus we need a better understanding of the social acceptability of universal SEB screening. In this review, five relevant screening instruments, or “screeners,” for school age children were evaluated using a rubric of six characteristics and 21 indicators of social acceptability as determined via a comprehensive search of the literature. Results indicate a range of characteristics that could affect adoption and use. The discussion proposes applications for this information.

Changing Teacher Time

ABSTRACT Studies on special education teacher time use (TTU) have indicated that special education teachers spend small percentages of their day teaching. The authors examined goal setting and self-monitoring to change the time use of 4 teachers. In terms of TTU, each teacher articulated goals for increasing some tasks (e.g., instruction) and decreasing others (e.g., paperwork). Data indicated that self-monitoring of time use produced medium and moderate effects for 1 teacher and small effects for another. Data for the 2 other teachers suggested that there are institutional barriers to increasing instructional time, even for highly motivated teachers. This unique and preliminary study on changing TTU articulated teacher beliefs regarding barriers to changing teacher time. In addition, this study mirrored R. Ingersolls (1996, 2003) theoretical work, which indicated that teachers across the United States work every day in conditions shaped and controlled by a system that they do not control.

Construct and Predictive Validity of Social Acceptability: Scores From High School Teacher Ratings on the School Intervention Rating Form.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the construct and predictive validity of scores on a measure of social acceptability of class-wide and individual student intervention, the School Intervention Rating Form (SIRF), with high school teachers. Utilizing scores from 158 teachers, exploratory factor analysis revealed a three-factor (i.e., Suitability, Perceived Benefit, Convenience) structure. Findings revealed that teachers who implemented class-wide and individual student interventions with perfect integrity or less than acceptable integrity rated the interventions as less suitable than those who implemented with acceptable integrity. Similarly, the same groups rated the interventions as less convenient than those who implemented with acceptable integrity. Implications for practice and future research are discussed.

Effect Size for Token Economy Use in Contemporary Classroom Settings: A Meta-Analysis of Single-Case Research

Abstract. Recent meta-analyses of the effectiveness of token economies (TEs) report insufficient quality in the research or mixed effects in the results. This study examines the contemporary (post-Public Law 94-142) peer-reviewed published single-case research evaluating the effectiveness of TEs. The results are stratified across quality of demonstrated functional relationship using a nonparametric effect size (ES) that controls for undesirable baseline trends in the analysis. In addition, moderators (i.e., classroom setting, age of participant, outcomes, use of response cost, and use of verbal cueing) were analyzed. Eighty-eight AB phase contrasts were calculated from 28 studies (1980–2014) representing 90 participants and produced a weighted mean ES of 0.82 (SE = 0.03, 95% CI [0.77, 0.88]). Strong quality produced a combined weighted mean ES of 0.85 (SE = 0.642, 95% CI [0.74, 0.97]). Moderator analyses revealed that a TE was slightly more effective for youth between the ages of 6 and 15 years than for children between the ages of 3 and 5 years or when used with behavioral goals in comparison to academic goals. However, no difference was found when implemented in general or special education settings or with the inclusion of response cost or verbal cueing.

Is Reading Tests Aloud an Accommodation for Youth With or at Risk for ADHD

In this study, we intend to determine if reading tests aloud provides a differential boost to youth with elevated symptoms of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) relative to same-aged peers. Participants were 36 youth, 44% with or at risk for ADHD, who participated in a week long summer camp. Over the course of the week, youth attended five 45-min classroom periods followed by 10-min tests. Participants were randomized into one of two conditions (i.e., read aloud and silent) that alternated across 5 days. Results indicate that reading tests aloud in small groups significantly improved the testing performance of youth with or at risk for ADHD and provided a differential boost relative to youth without ADHD. Implications for special education practice and future research are discussed.