Judith S. Bridges

Sex differences in occupational values

In order to examine sex differences in occupational values, college women and men rated the importance of 18 job characteristics for their career choice. In addition, they indicated which three were the most important and which three were the least important. The findings showed that, in comparison to males, females attached greater importance to a large variety of values, and these results are discussed in relation to career choice.

Trait Judgments of Stay-At-Home and Employed Parents: A Function of Social Role and/or Shifting Standards?:

Primarily middle-class, White college students (n = 484) read a brief description of a stay-at-home or employed mother or father, estimated how often the target performed several parenting behaviors, and rated her/him on communion and parenting effectiveness. Results showed that respondents estimated more parenting behaviors for mothers than fathers in both roles, gave stay-at-home mothers and fathers similar trait ratings, and viewed employed mothers as lower in communion and parenting effectiveness than fathers. The behavioral findings indicate that social role does not override the effect of gender on trait judgments. It is likely that the observed null and counterstereotypical effects of gender are due to the operation of shifting standards of judgment that reflect within-gender expectations.

College Females' Perceptions of Adult Roles and Occupational Fields for Women.

College women rated the perceived marital, emotional, and role consequences; personality characteristics; and the overall evaluation of adult female stimulus persons who varied according to maternal role, career role, and sex dominance of occupational/educational field. The data indicated that marital and emotional reward and costs were associated with both the maternal and career roles, but only the mother role was perceived to involve role problems. Moreover, the overall evaluations of the mother and career roles were more favorable than those of the nonmother and noncareer roles. In relation to occupational field, sex dominance had no effect on the perception of rewards, costs, or role problems or on the overall impression. However, the data did indicate some tendency to stereotype occupational categories as well as roles, primarily in terms of expressiveness.

Pink Or Blue Gender-Stereotypic Perceptions of Infants as Conveyed by Birth Congratulations Cards

To examine societal gender stereotypes of infants, this unobtrusive study examined the visual images and verbal messages present in birth congratulations cards. The sample consisted of 61 girl and 61 boy cards selected from 18 establishments in four municipalities, which differ in size, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status. A content analysis revealed several differences between girl and boy cards. Visual images indicative of physical activity, such as action toys and active babies, were more prominent on boy than girl cards. Verbal messages of expressiveness, including sweetness and sharing, appeared on more girl than boy cards. In addition, more boy than girl birth cards presented a message of happiness for the parents and/or the baby. The findings are discussed in the context of gender stereotypes.

The Effects of Perceived Job Availability for Women on College Women's Attitudes Toward Prestigious Male-Dominated Occupations

This study investigated the effects of perceived job availability for women and sex role orientation on college womens evaluations of highly prestigious male-dominated occupations. In a mixed design, feminine, androgynous, and masculine women (as determined by the Personal Attributes Questionnaire) evaluated two professions described as providing good opportunities for women, two described as providing average opportunities, and two described as providing poor opportunities. Subjects were most likely to want to pursue occupations with good job availability for women and to expect the most intellectual stimulation and approval from others as a result of pursuing these occupations. In addition, sex role orientation was related to expectations concerning intellectual stimulation and approval from others but did not interact with level of job opportunity on any of the dependent measures.

Black and white college women's maternal employment outcome expectations and their desired timing of maternal employment

In an attempt to better understand college womens maternal employment plans, this study compared the ability of different types of maternal employment outcome expectations to predict college womens desired timing of their maternal employment. A mailed questionnaire examined Black (n= 113) and White (n= 189) college womens maternal employment timing preference and their perceptions of the likelihood of 30 possible outcomes of maternal employment. Regressions showed that White womens expectations about the benefits for themselves and the costs for their children predicted their desired maternal employment timing. No variables predicted the timing preference of Black women. Additionally, the Black compared to White respondents expected maternal employment would bring fewer personal costs and more benefits for their children and they desired employment earlier in their childs life. Discussion focuses on Black and White womens conceptions of the integration of the employment and domestic roles.

SEX-TYPED MAY BE BEAUTIFUL BUT ANDROGYNOUS IS GOOD'

The effects of a stimulus persons sex-role orientation on both opposite-sex attraction and attribution of physical attractiveness were assessed. Male and female undergraduates, classified as sex-typed or androgynous according to their scores on the Bern Sex-role Inventory, were asked to form impressions of two members of the opposite sex on the basis of some of their responses to the inventory. The protocols were actually bogus and were contrived to represent a feminine female, a masculine male, and an androgynous person (same for both sexes). Each subject was given one sex-typed and one androgynous protocol and was asked to form impressions of both. The results indicated that both androgynous and sex-typed females liked the androgynous male significantly more than the masculine one, although males did not differentiate between the two females. Moreover, significantly greater physical attractiveness was attributed to the sex-typed stimulus person than to the androgynous one.

The Prediction of Learning Problems in a Rural Setting Can We Improve on Readiness Tests

The early prediction of learning problems was studied in a low socioeconomic rural school district. Two standard reading readiness tests and a popular group intelligence test were administered early in first grade. In addition, a subsample of the children was individually administered a picture vocabulary test, a test of visual motor performance, and a test of emotional maturity in the summer before these children started school. The criterion measures were a group achievement test and teacher rating of overall performance secured at the end of first and second grades. The prediction of learning problems for individual children was measured, using a cutting score on the readiness tests and problem-no problem distinctions on the double criterion of achievement test and teacher rating. The results showed that the readiness tests correctly predict first grade performance 86 percent of the time and second grade performance 73 percent of the time. One of the readiness tests correlated .70 with the combined criterion, .76 with the achievement test, and .58 with the teacher ratings. The three individual tests used did not add significantly to the variance accounted for by the readiness tests.

Correlates of sex role and attitudes toward women.

The Bern Sex-role Inventory, the 25-item version of the Attitudes toward Women Scale, and either the Cognitive Complexity Scale or a 40-item Self-disclosure Scale were administered to 322 introductory psychology students. Adherence to the sex-role traditional for ones sex was related to conservative attitudes toward women for females and high self-disclosure for both sexes. Liberal attitudes toward women were related to high self-disclosure in males, but cognitive complexity was unrelated to sex role or attitudes.

Black and White employed mothers' role experiences

This study examined the maternal, employment, and marital role consequences experienced by 40 Black and 65 White middle-class mothers. Analyses of variance showed that the Black compared to White respondents experienced significantly more marital conflict. However, the two samples reported similar levels of personal costs, personal rewards, marital benefits, insufficient time for husband, and emotional reactions to separation from their children. The similarity of role outcomes across ethnicity is discussed in the context of the similarity of roles. It is suggested that role engagement shapes actual role experiences.