Judy Eaton

The Mediating Role of Perceptual Validation in the Repentance–Forgiveness Process

This research focuses on one potential mechanism by which repentance leads to forgiveness. Two studies demonstrate that repentance leads to increased perceptual validation (social verification that one is correct about ones interpretation of an event) and, ultimately, more forgiveness. Participants reported more perceptual validation when they received repentance than when they did not (Studies 1 and 2), particularly repentance that included an acknowledgement of the transgression and the harm done (Study 2). In addition, in Study 2, acknowledgement of the transgression by a third party also had a positive effect on forgiveness. There was evidence that perceptual validation mediated the repentance–forgiveness relationship. These findings suggest that repentance facilitates forgiveness, at least in part, because it makes victims feel validated.

Fit to forgive: Exploring the interaction between regulatory focus, repentance, and forgiveness.

Three studies, using diverse methodologies and measures, were conducted to examine the role that the regulatory focus of an injured party and of a transgressor (E. T. Higgins, 1997, 2000) plays in explaining the relationship between repentance and forgiveness. The authors predicted that when a victims regulatory focus (i.e., promotion vs. prevention) was congruent (i.e., fit) with the regulatory focus of a transgressors repentance (i.e., promotion vs. prevention), there would be greater forgiveness compared with when there was incongruence (i.e., mismatch). Three studies supported these predictions. The results also confirmed one potential explanation for why apologies are not always successful at eliciting forgiveness, namely, feeling right. This research suggests that regulatory focus theory can help inform the scientific study of forgiveness and its related processes.

When apologies fail: The moderating effect of implicit and explicit self-esteem on apology and forgiveness

The purpose of this research was to explore whether self-esteem, defined as both an implicit and an explicit evaluation of the self, moderates the apology – forgiveness process. It was predicted that those with defensive or fragile self-esteem (i.e., high explicit and low implicit self-esteem) would focus on and respond to the aspects of the apology that confirmed the harm done by the transgressor, rather than the transgressors remorse, and thus respond with less forgiveness and more avoidance and revenge than when the transgressor does not apologize. Participants experienced a transgression, after which the transgressor either apologized or not. As predicted, compared to those with secure self-esteem, those with defensive self-esteem were the least forgiving and the most vengeful and avoidant after receiving an apology. These findings suggest that apologies may not have their intended effect when offered to individuals with defensive self-esteem. Potential mechanisms of this relationship were also examined.

Apology and Remorse in the Last Statements of Death Row Prisoners

The role of apology is beginning to receive attention from within the criminal justice system. Research suggests that both victims and offenders can benefit when the offender offers an apology and shows remorse. Less is known, however, about the frequency with which offenders apologize and the content of their apologies. In this study we conducted an exploratory analysis of remorse‐related content in the last statements of inmates on death row in Texas between December 7, 1982 and August 31, 2007. Almost one‐third of the offenders offered an apology, most of which were directed toward the victim’s family. In addition, these apologies were linked with other indications of remorse and sincerity, such as asking for forgiveness and showing empathy. Logistic regression analyses showed that apology was reliably predicted by these remorse‐related variables, but not by demographic variables or variables related to the crime itself. Implications and future research directions are discussed.

The effects of third-party validation and minimization on judgments of the transgressor and the third party.

Victims of interpersonal transgressions often turn to friends, family, and trusted others when trying to make sense of negative events. This research explored the effect of two of the many ways that these informal third parties can respond: validating the victims experience, and downplaying or minimizing the transgression. Two studies found that validation from a third party increases revenge motivations and that minimization of the transgression is more effective than validation at reducing revenge motivations. However, results also indicated that victims judge third parties more positively if they validate rather than minimize the transgression. These findings suggest that, when choosing between validation and minimization, third parties must make a choice between promoting forgiveness and promoting themselves.

The Effects of Coloring on Anxiety, Mood, and Perseverance.

Abstract This study tested whether the structure of a coloring task has an effect on anxiety, mood, and perseverance. Eighty-five undergraduate students were randomly assigned to 1 of 2 coloring conditions: free choice, where they could color an image using any colors they wanted, and forced choice, where they were instructed to copy the colors of a precolored image. Anxiety and mood were measured before and after coloring; in addition, perseverance was measured after coloring. Results showed positive effects of coloring, with greater anxiety reduction and evidence of higher perseverance in the free-choice group compared to the forced-choice group. This suggests that well-being might be facilitated by a coloring task that balances structure and engagement.

Honor on Death Row

The Southern United States is described as having a culture of honor, an argument that has been used to explain higher crime rates in the Southern United States than in the rest of the country. This research explored whether the combination of honor-related violence and traditional southern politeness norms is related to regional differences in the degree of remorse expressed by those who have committed violent crimes. It was proposed that different social norms regarding politeness and apologies in the Southern United States would be reflected in the narratives provided by offenders. The data came from the final statements that offenders on death row made before they were executed. Results showed that, compared with offenders executed in the non-Southern United States, offenders executed in the South more often apologized for their crimes in their final statements, but they were not necessarily more remorseful.

“The Wall is the City”: A Narrative Analysis of Vancouver’s Post-Riot “Apology Wall”

Abstract We conducted a narrative analysis of a collective narrative comprising inscriptions left on the locally famed “Apology Wall,” written by thousands of community members in the immediate aftermath of the 2011 Vancouver Stanley Cup Riot. In considering the Apology Wall as an “evocative object,” this study emphasized the significance of material objects as meaning-making devices. Interpretation of themes was conducted through a constructivist lens, specifically guided by literature concerning meaning-making following negative life events. Results bolstered the significance of the Wall as a sense-making device that provided a forum for the community to collectively share positive emotional expression, construct solidarity and collective identity, and express desires for restoration. By studying this collective narrative, the study not only illuminated how those affected constructed meaning after the Vancouver sports riot, but it also contributes to the literature on how communities, in general, make early sense of and respond to destructive events.

Closure and its myths Victims’ families, the death penalty, and the closure argument

In the United States, when an offender on death row is about to be executed, family members of the victim(s) (i.e. co-victims) are permitted to witness the execution. A common justification for this practice is that it provides closure for the victims’ families (the ‘closure argument’); however, there is little empirical research to either refute or support this claim. This study examined the statements that co-victims who had attended an execution made to the press immediately following the execution, in order to learn more about their feelings about closure. The relationship between aspects of the crime, the offender’s last words, and the co-victim’s statements was also examined. Generally, results indicated that victims’ family members expressed their views on closure in various ways, and that the 23 percent who did mention closure were evenly divided on whether they felt the execution provided closure or not. Co-victims were more likely to mention some type of closure when they felt that justice had been served, and when the offender asked for forgiveness and stated a hope that the execution would bring the co-victim closure. Overall, qualitative and quantitative results did not support the closure argument.

The Partially Flipped Classroom: The Effects of Flipping a Module on "Junk Science" in a Large Methods Course.

Flipped classrooms are gaining popularity, especially in psychology statistics courses. However, not all courses lend themselves to a fully flipped design, and some instructors might not want to commit to flipping every class. We tested the effectiveness of flipping just one component (a module on junk science) of a large methods course. We compared two sections, one in a traditional format (n = 128) and the other in a flipped format (n = 139), based on students’ academic performance and attitudes toward the class structure. Compared to students in the traditional lecture section, students in the flipped section performed significantly better on a quiz tied to the lecture content and rated their enjoyment of the exercise as higher. These findings demonstrate the utility of using partial flipped classroom techniques with large classes.