Jukka Särkkä

Polychlorinated phenols, guaiacols and catechols in environment

Abstract Emissions, bioaccumulation and possible food chain enrichment of polychlorinated phenols, guaiacols and catechols have been studied by analyses of water, snow, ash, benthic animal, fish and bird samples in Finland. Seventeen individual compounds were analyzed using authentic reference model compounds and internal standard by GC/ECD. Although the enrichment potential of the studied compounds appeared to be lower than that of the chlorinated hydrocarbons, they proved to be very general pollutants and some of them showed specific bioaccumulation to certain species and high persistency thus forming environmental hazards.

Transportation and enrichment of chlorinated phenolic compounds in different aquatic food chains

Abstract Food chain and sediment samples of three lake areas in Middle Finland have been analyzed for their chlorophenol contamination using twelve model compounds which are main residues of chlorobleaching and wood preservation. Six of these compounds were commonly found. Statistical treatment of the analysis results indicate that tetrachloroguaiacol is the most potent biocide of the compounds studied.

Organic chlorine compounds in lake sediments. III. Chlorohydrocarbons, free and chemically bound chlorophenols

Abstract Chlorohydrocarbons and free and chemically bound chlorophenols, catechols and guaiacols were measured from lake sediments in Central Finland. Chlorohydrocarbons occurred at low backround levels except chlorocymenes from pulp mills and PCBs near the city of Aanekoski, where a local leakage occurrs. Free chlorophenols (hexane extractables) were found in all 18 areas studied, but the bound ones (extracted with strong alkali) only in the pulp mill reciepient lakes where they dominated. Preliminary analyses of chemically bound chlorophenols in high molecular fractions of spent bleach liquors and pulp mill effluents indicated that majority of chlorocatechols and guaiacols are bound already in the factory.

Food chain enrichment of organochlorine compounds and mercury in clean and polluted lakes of Finland

Abstract Lakes polluted by pulp mill and urban wastes including chlorobleaching of pulp, semipolluted lakes and reference lakes in nearly natural condition in Central Finland were studied for contents of mercury, methyl mercury and organochlorine compounds in sediment, plankton, roach and pike. Chlorobleaching had caused a 30-fold concentration of Hg in bottom sediment related to that of the purest reference lake. This was not reflected to the mercury levels in fish which were highest at one natural condition (humic) lake and rather high also at semipolluted lake Paijanne. Mercury in fish was shown to be mostly methylated but not completely and its time trends could be estimated. Chloroform showed no but carbon tetrachloride, tetrachloroethylene and chlorinated cymenes significant bioaccumulation in fish. Levels of chlorophenols from bleaching had strongly decreased but pentachlorophenol and 2,3,4,6-tetrachlorphenol levels remained related to earlier results. Using fat basis attenuated the power of estimation of food chain enrichment by a three throphic level model for lipohilic biocides and a strong proof was obtained of the enrichment of hexachlorobenzene. The time trends at Paijanne were decreasing for mercury and DDE but increasing for PCB.

Organic chlorine compounds in lake sediments and the role of the chlorobleaching effluents

Abstract Chloride, total organic chlorine (TOCl) and chlorophenols have been measured in bottom sediment layers of seven lakes in Central Finland. Organic chlorine compounds were found even in layers formed in the 13th century. However, the amounts increase markedly in 20th century layers and are much higher below than above the pulp mills.

Meiofauna of springs in Finland in relation to environmental factors

The meiofauna was studied from springs in Finland which wascompletely ice-covered during the last glacial epoch. Of the31springs that were examined, 15 were in areas considered to bein anatural state and 16 had catchment areas subject toanthropogenicdisturbance from one of four sources: agriculture,inhabitation,gravel extraction or winter road de-icing with NaCl. The taxarecorded were a mixture of those already described fromepigeicwaters or groundwaters and some which may be regarded ascharacteristic of springs Statistical analysis revealeddifferencesin the meiofaunal taxa in relation to the water quality orcatchment area variables. Of the major meiofaunal groups thenematodes favoured springs influenced by agriculture,oligochaeteswere most tolerant of road de-icing, cladocerans and copepodspreferred springs in a natural state, ostracods couldwithstand theinfluence of road de-icing and gravel extraction, whilstdipteranlarvae could withstand the influence of agriculture.Oligochaetescomprised 13.4% of meiofaunal numbers. The most abundantspecieswas Aeolosoma quaternarium, which was most numerous insprings in a natural state, while Dero digitatapreferredeutrophic conditions. Harpacticoids comprised 14.1% ofindividualsand clearly preferred a natural state, Bryocamptusechinatusand Moraria brevipes being the most abundant species.Ostracods, of which the most abundant species was Potamocyprispallida, were the most numerous animal group, constituting21% ofthe meiofaunal population, and their numbers were greatest insprings influenced by road de-icing or gravel extraction.Dipteranlarvae, of which the majority were chironomids, comprised14.9% ofindividuals. The ostracods Potamocypris pallida andthreespecies of Candona and the harpacticoid Bryocamptuscuspidatus are new records for Finland.

ORGANIC CHLORINE COMPOUNDS IN LAKE SEDIMENTS. II, ORGANICALLY BOUND CHLORINE

Abstract Organically bound chlorine together with inorganic chloride was measured from dated bottom sediment layers of 18 lakes in Central Finland and compared to organic matter contents. Pulp mills were found to be the source of significant increase of the accumulation of all of these materials in the 20th century.

The occurrence of oligochaetes in lake chains receiving pulp mill waste and their relation to eutrophication on the trophic scale

Earlier conceptions of oligochaetes as indicators of trophy were somewhat enlarged to include more littoral, meiofaunal and naidid species. The amplitudes of different species on the oligotrophy-eutrophy axis seem to be generally large. Certain species which probably originally occur mainly in very humic environments seem also to be able to endure very strong organic loading caused by pulp mills. Species of this kind seem to be Dero digitata, Specaria josinae, Slavina appendiculata and Aulodrilus pluriseta. Chaetogaster langi and Arcteonais lomondi are also species which live in areas receiving pulp mill wastes. A. lomondi and D. digitata seem to be species living in greater depths than the naidids generally. Tubifex tubifex densities as high as 600000 ind. m-2 were found near a pulp mill when the meiofauna method was used. A third of the T. tubifex were found deeper than 5 cm from the sediment surface. S. josinae and S. appendiculata may be found down to depths between 5 and 10 cm.

Lacustrine, profundal meiobenthic oligochaetes as indicators of trophy and organic loading

Meiobenthic and macrobenthic oligochaetes were collected from two depths in Lake Päjänne and examined together with environmental data in which two environmental gradients can be seen. Numbers of Piguetiella blanci, Aeolosoma quaternarium and Aeolosoma hemprichi were positively correlated with oxygen saturation and negatively correlated with total phosphorus and COD suggesting that these species are indicators of oligotrophic conditions. Numbers of Amphichaeta leydigii, Specaria josinae and Vejdovskyella comata were positively correlated with total phosphorus which implies that these species prefer eutrophic conditions. The last three species and Dero digitata showed positive correlations with COD and organic sedimentation, which suggests that they also indicate organic loading. A decrease in aeolosomatid biomass was seen with increasing phosphorus and organic loading. The average body size of detritus-feeding naidids in the upper part of the profundal zone was reduced by organic loading, and more clearly eutrophication, which emphasizes the importance of including meiobenthic oligochaetes in pollution investigations. Of the naidid and aeolosomatid species, Chaetogaster langi preferred the greatest depths of the profundal zone while most of the other species were more abundant at 20 m rather than at the maximum depth. Clustering of the oligochaete taxa supported these observations and clustering of sampling stations based on oligochaete variables generally corresponded to clustering based on environmental data.

Organic chlorine compounds in lake sediments. IV. Dioxins, furans and related chloroaromatic compounds

Abstract Polychlorodibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs), polychlorodibenzofurans (PCDFs), polychloronaphthalenes (PCNs) and coplanar PCBs were measured in surface sediments from 18 lake areas in Central Finland. Toxic 2, 3, 7, 8-substituted PCDD and PCDF congeners occurred at low levels (