Julia Sherman

Sex-Related Differences in Mathematics Achievement, Spatial Visualization and Affective Factors

This study investigated (a) mathematics achievement (Test of Academic Progress) of 589 female and 644 male, predominantly white, 9th-12th grade students enrolled in mathematics courses from four schools, controlling for mathematics background and general ability (Quick Word Test); (b) relationships to mathematics achievement, and to sex-related differences in mathematics achievement, of spatial visualization (Differential Aptitude Test), eight attitudes measured by the Fennema-Sherman Mathematics Attitudes Scales, a measure of Mathematics Activities outside of school, and number of Mathematics Related Courses and Space Related Courses taken. Complex results were obtained. Few sex-related cognitive differences but many attitudinal differences were found. Analyses of variance, covariance, correlation, and principal components analysis techniques were used. The results showed important relationships between socio-cultural factors and sex-related cognitive differences.

Sex-Related Differences in Mathematics Achievement and Related Factors: A Further Study.

In the past, many researchers have concluded that male superiority in mathematics achievement is almost always found (Glennon & Callahan, 1968); but many are currently suggesting that sex-related differences in mathematics achievement are not as prevalent as had been believed and that they are age related (Callahan & Glennon, 1975; Fennema, 1974, 1977; Hilton & Bergltind, 1974; Maccoby & Jacklin, 1974; Suydam & Weaver, 1975). Although the National Longitudinal Study of Mathematical Abilities (NLSMA) and the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) do report sex-related differences in favor of males (Wilson, 1972; Mullis, Note 1), inspection of their data indicates that these differences increase as learners progress from grade 6 to grade 12. Fennema and Sherman (1977) reported that when the number of years of studying mathematics was controlled, sex-related differences were found in only half the high schools studied.

The Study of Mathematics By High School Girls and Boys: Related Variables

Reported is a study comparing females and males enrolled in high school mathematics classes on their intent to enroll in additional mathematics classes, and affective variables related to this intent. Significantly more males than females, especially from the lower half of the achievement distribution, intended to continue to study mathematics. Controlling for cognitive differences 10th and 11th grade students differing in intent to take mathematics (n = 716), responded differently to nearly all of the Fennema-Sherman Mathematics Attitudes Scales. When girls and boys were “equated” for cognitive variables and intent to study mathematics, few sex-related differences in attitudes toward mathematics were found.

Mathematics the Critical Filter: A Look at Some Residues.

Interviews were conducted regarding attitudes toward sex role and mathematics with three cognitively equated groups of girls who had enrolled in different amounts of theoretical (college-track) math in high school (n = 87). Girls who took the least math were less ambitious and in some ways, more independent. Girls who took four years of theoretical math had more pleasant earliest memories of math, fewer negative experiences with teachers, but more conflict between sex role and achievement. Results continue to underscore contradictions in the socialization of girls.

Cognitive Performance as a Function of Sex and Handedness: An Evaluation of the Levy Hypothesis

Investigated incidence of left-handedness and non-right-handedness in a sample of 9th-grade students (n = 313). In comparison, incidence among undergraduates is underestimated. Girls were not significantly more right-handed than boys in the 9th grade sample but were significantly (p<.01) more right-handed than boys in a sample of math students, grades 9-11 (n = 1097). Handedness did not affect math achievement (Test of Academic Progress), verbal (Quick Word Test), or spatial (Space Relations Test of the Differential Aptitude Test) performance in the 9th (n = 108) or 10th (n = 75) grade students. for 11th grade students (n = 98) a significant sex-by-handedness-by-measures (verbal spatial) interaction was found (p<.05). Results did not support the hypothesis of Levys that left-handedness decreases spatial performance and benefits verbal performance, nor did the results support the further hypothesis that the cognitive pattern of higher verbal than spatial performance often considered characteristic of females can be attributed to more bilateral cerebral verbal function in females as in left-handers.

Factors Predicting Girls' and Boys' Enrollment in College Preparatory Mathematics

Students (n = 337) tested in the eighth grade were followed up in the eleventh grade to see what courses in the college preparatory math sequence they had elected. Discriminant analyses for girls and boys were performed on the test scores, predicting those electing one, two, three, or four years of college preparatory math. Scores included math achievement (SRA Math Concepts), vocabulary (Cognitive Abilities Test), spatial visualization (Differential Aptitude Test) and the Fennema-Sherman Mathematics Attitudes Scales II. For girls, the standardized weights of the discriminant function were highest for vocabulary, Confidence in Learning Mathematics, Attitude toward Success in Math, and Effectance Motivation in Mathematics. For boys, they were highest for Confidence in Learning Mathematics, vocabulary, perceived Attitude of Father toward One as a Learner of Mathematics, and Math Concepts. Consistent with results of a previous study, the Confidence in Learning Mathematics Scale emerged as a powerful discriminator of groups differing in mathematics enrollment behavior. Spatial visualization skill was a more important discriminator for females than for males.

Continuing in Mathematics: A Longitudinal Study of the Attitudes of High School Girls

The mathematics attitudes (determined by ratings on the Fennema-Sherman Mathematics Attitudes Scales) of ninth grade girls of similar intellect who subsequently took one to four years of college preparatory math were compared in 1975 and 1978 (n = 84). Math enrollment groups differed significantly on the following scales: Usefulness of Mathematics, Confidence in Learning Mathematics, Teacher (perceived attitude toward the student as a learner of mathematics), and Effectance Motivation in Mathematics as assessed both in Grades 9 and 12, and on the Math as a Male Domain Scale as assessed in Grade 12. From Grade 9 to 12, scores on the Attitude toward Success in Math Scale became significantly more positive.

Girls Talk About Mathematics and Their Future: A Partial Replication

Grade 11 girls (n = 63) who had previously been extensively tested in Grade 8 were interviewed and readministered the Fennema-Sherman Mathematics Attitudes Scales II. Girls who had enrolled in three years of the college preparatory math sequence were contrasted with those who had taken two years. The groups were equated on three cognitive measures as assessed in Grade 8. Results confirmed previous research in these ways: “fear of success” in math became less from Grade 8 to Grade 11; girls continuing in math had more positive attitudes toward math, came from more favored environments, were closer to parents and more influenced by them. Most girls planned to combine work, marriage and children, but plans were poorly articulated in relationship to each other; 29% would play dumb while 76% said other girls do. Results demonstrate developing sex-role strain.

Therapists: Their Attitudes and Information About Women

The Therapists’ Information About Women Scale (TIWS) and Therapists’ Attitude Toward Women Scale (TAWS) are presented. Results from a sample of 184 therapists (social workers, psychiatrists, and psychologists) showed no significant differences among professions; however, women therapists were significantly better informed, more liberal, and less stereotyped in their attitudes. Information and attitudes were correlated.57. Though attitudes were more liberal than stereotyped, many therapists showed a lack of pertinent information and attitudes likely to conflict with those of their women patients.

Distribution of Spatial Visualization and Mathematical Problem Solving Scores: A Test of Stafford's X-linked Hypotheses:

This study investigated distribution of spatial visualization scores (Space Relations test of the Differential Aptitude Test) and mathematical problem solving scores (Mental Arithmetic Problems) obtained by 161 male and 152 female, 9th grade, white students for fit to the distributions predicted by the X-linked hypotheses of recessive inheritance of these skills. Data did not support the X-linked hypotheses. No significant sex-related differences were found between mean scores of tests of spatial visualization or mathematical problem solving.