Juliana Maantay

The complexities of measuring access to parks and physical activity sites in New York City: a quantitative and qualitative approach

BackgroundProximity to parks and physical activity sites has been linked to an increase in active behaviors, and positive impacts on health outcomes such as lower rates of cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and obesity. Since populations with a low socio-economic status as well as racial and ethnic minorities tend to experience worse health outcomes in the USA, access to parks and physical activity sites may be an environmental justice issue. Geographic Information systems were used to conduct quantitative and qualitative analyses of park accessibility in New York City, which included kernel density estimation, ordinary least squares (global) regression, geographically weighted (local) regression, and longitudinal case studies, consisting of field work and archival research. Accessibility was measured by both density of park acreage and density of physical activity sites. Independent variables included percent non-Hispanic black, percent Hispanic, percent below poverty, percent of adults without high school diploma, percent with limited English-speaking ability, and population density.ResultsThe ordinary least squares linear regression found weak relationships in both the park acreage density and the physical activity site density models (Ra2 = .11 and .23, respectively; AIC = 7162 and 3529, respectively). Geographically weighted regression, however, suggested spatial non-stationarity in both models, indicating disparities in accessibility that vary over space with respect to magnitude and directionality of the relationships (AIC = 2014 and -1241, respectively). The qualitative analysis supported the findings of the local regression, confirming that although there is a geographically inequitable distribution of park space and physical activity sites, it is not globally predicted by race, ethnicity, or socio-economic status.ConclusionThe combination of quantitative and qualitative analyses demonstrated the complexity of the issues around racial and ethnic disparities in park access. They revealed trends that may not have been otherwise detectable, such as the spatially inconsistent relationship between physical activity site density and socio-demographics. In order to establish a more stable global model, a number of additional factors, variables, and methods might be used to quantify park accessibility, such as network analysis of proximity, perception of accessibility and usability, and additional park quality characteristics. Accurate measurement of park accessibility can therefore be important in showing the links between opportunities for active behavior and beneficial health outcomes.

Disproportionate Proximity to Environmental Health Hazards: Methods, Models, and Measurement

We sought to provide a historical overview of methods, models, and data used in the environmental justice (EJ) research literature to measure proximity to environmental hazards and potential exposure to their adverse health effects. We explored how the assessment of disproportionate proximity and exposure has evolved from comparing the prevalence of minority or low-income residents in geographic entities hosting pollution sources and discrete buffer zones to more refined techniques that use continuous distances, pollutant fate-and-transport models, and estimates of health risk from toxic exposure. We also reviewed analytical techniques used to determine the characteristics of people residing in areas potentially exposed to environmental hazards and emerging geostatistical techniques that are more appropriate for EJ analysis than conventional statistical methods. We concluded by providing several recommendations regarding future research and data needs for EJ assessment that would lead to more reliable results and policy solutions.

Residential Proximity to Environmental Hazards and Adverse Health Outcomes

How living near environmental hazards contributes to poorer health and disproportionate health outcomes is an ongoing concern. We conducted a substantive review and critique of the literature regarding residential proximity to environmental hazards and adverse pregnancy outcomes, childhood cancer, cardiovascular and respiratory illnesses, end-stage renal disease, and diabetes. Several studies have found that living near hazardous wastes sites, industrial sites, cropland with pesticide applications, highly trafficked roads, nuclear power plants, and gas stations or repair shops is related to an increased risk of adverse health outcomes. Government agencies should consider these findings in establishing rules and permitting and enforcement procedures to reduce pollution from environmentally burdensome facilities and land uses.

Zoning Law, Health, and Environmental Justice: What's the Connection?:

oning laws determine what types of land uses and densities can occur on each property lot in a muZ nicipality, and therefore also govern the range of potential environmental and health impacts resulting from the land use. Zoning regulations are the most ubiquitous of the land use laws in the United States, as well as in many other countries.’ As such, they have far-reaching effects on the location of noxious uses, and any concomitant environmental or human health impacts. Zoning has enormous implications, in general, for shaping our environment, and because changes to zoning are made through a political process, it has possibilities for abuse. One zoning expert stated:

Loose-coupling an air dispersion model and a geographic information system (GIS) for studying air pollution and asthma in the Bronx, New York City.

This study developed new procedures to loosely integrate an air dispersion model, AERMOD, and a geographic information system (GIS) package, ArcGIS, to simulate air dispersion from stationary sources in the Bronx, New York City, for five pollutants: PM10, PM2.5, NOx, CO, and SO2. Plume buffers created from the model results were used as proxies of human exposure to the pollution from the sources and they modified the commonly used fixed-distance proximity buffers by considering the realities of air dispersion. The application of the plume buffers confirmed that the higher asthma hospitalization rates were associated with the higher potential exposure to local air pollution. The air dispersion modeling exhibited advantages over proximity analysis and geostatistical methods for environmental health research. The loose integration provides a relatively simple and feasible method for health scientists to take advantage of both air dispersion modeling and GIS by avoiding the need for intensive programming and substantial GIS expertise.

Disparities in Access to Over-the-Counter Nicotine Replacement Products in New York City Pharmacies

OBJECTIVES We surveyed the availability of tobacco products and nonprescription nicotine replacement therapy (NRT) in pharmacies in New York City, stratified by the race, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status (SES) of the surrounding neighborhoods to determine whether disparities in availability existed. METHODS Surveyors visited a random sample of retail pharmacies to record the availability of tobacco products and nonprescription NRT. We used census data and geographic information systems analysis to determine the SES of each neighborhood. We used logistic modeling to explore relations between SES and the availability of NRT and tobacco products. RESULTS Of 646 pharmacies sampled, 90.8% sold NRT and 46.9% sold cigarettes. NRT and cigarettes were slightly more available in pharmacies in neighborhoods with a higher SES. NRT was more expensive in poorer neighborhoods. CONCLUSIONS Small disparities existed in access to nonprescription NRT and cigarettes. The model did not adequately account for cigarette access, because of availability from other retail outlets. These results may explain some of the excess prevalence of cigarette use in low-SES areas.

Proximity Analysis for Exposure Assessment in Environmental Health Justice Research

This chapter provides a historical overview and constructive critique of analytical approaches and methods that have been used to measure proximity to environmental health hazards and potential exposure to their adverse effects in the environmental justice (EJ) research literature. After providing an introduction to environmental health justice research and key findings, we examine how quantitative EJ analysis has emerged from comparing the prevalence of minority or low-income populations in spatial units hosting environmental hazards and circular buffer zones to more advanced techniques that utilize GIS, pollution plume models, and estimates of health risk from ambient exposure to multiple pollutants and emission sources. We also review spatial analytical approaches used in previous studies to determine the demographic and socioeconomic characteristics of people residing in areas potentially exposed to environmental hazards, as well as newly emerging geostatistical techniques that are more appropriate for spatial analysis of EJ than conventional statistical methods used in prior research. The concluding section focuses on highlighting the key limitations and identifying future research needs associated with assessment of environmental health justice.

‘At-risk’ places: inequities in the distribution of environmental stressors and prescription rates of mental health medications in Glasgow, Scotland

Using geospatial analytical methods, this study examines the association between one aspect of the built environment, namely, the concentration of vacant and derelict land (VDL), and the prevalence of mental health disorders (using the proxy variable of mental health medication prescription rates) in Glasgow, Scotland. This study builds on our previous research, which demonstrated the spatial correspondence between the locations of VDL in Glasgow and several physical health outcomes. Numerous studies of other locales have found similar correspondence between different elements of the built environment and various health outcomes. This is the first study of its kind to look at the spatial concentration of vacant and derelict land in relation to mental health, socio-economic indicators, environmental justice, and health inequities. The findings of this study demonstrate an inequity with respect to the distribution of vacant and derelict land, as confirmed by Pearson correlations between VDL density and deprivation (r = .521, p < .001). This suggests that many deprived communities are disproportionately burdened with environmental impacts and psycho-social stressors associated with this land use. Regression analyses show a significant positive association between the proportion of the population who were prescribed medication for anxiety, depression, or psychosis and the density of vacant and derelict land while adjusting for socio-demographic characteristics. This indicates that areas with higher VDL densities tend to exhibit higher rates of mental health issues. Based on these findings, strategies for constructive re-use of VDL are proposed.

Overweight and obesity: Can we reconcile evidence about supermarkets and fast food retailers for public health policy?

The aim of this study is to determine whether access to fast food outlets and supermarkets is associated with overweight and obesity in New York City neighborhoods. We use a Bayesian ecologic approach for spatial prediction. Consistent with prior research, we find no association between fast food density and overweight or obesity. Consistent with prior research, we find that supermarket access has a salutary impact on overweight and obesity. Given the lack of empirical evidence linking fast food retailers with adverse health outcomes, policymakers should be encouraged to adopt policies that incentivize the establishment of supermarkets and the modification of existing food store markets and retailers to offer healthier choices. Reaching within neighborhoods and modifying the physical environment and public health prevention and intervention efforts based on the characteristics of those neighborhoods may play a key role in creating healthier communities.

Environmental Health and Geospatial Analysis: An Overview

This chapter provides a brief overview of the use of geographic information science (GISc) in environmental health research and reviews the main themes and concepts highlighted in each chapter. We summarize applications of GISc in environmental hazard surveillance, exposure assessment and health outcomes surveillance. Challenges of using geospatial tools and methods are discussed. The final sections briefly review the contributions of each chapter and the connections among chapters.