Julie Nanette Salcedo

Squad Overmatch: Using Virtual Technology to Enhance Live Training Environments

The application of virtual augmentation to the U.S. Army’s training continuum may reduce Post-Traumatic Stress (PTS) and suicides by increasing Soldiers’ resilience and cognitive skills at the squad level pre-deployment. This may be accomplished through current programs of record with technological injections, thereby enhancing the training experience improving involvement and retention. Virtual platforms also invite more skill and task repetitions at a much lower cost and reduced risk of injury.

Impact of Instructional Strategies on Motivation and Engagement for Simulation-Based Training of Robot-Aided ISR Tasks

The U.S. Army projects a considerable increase in the number of operational Unmanned Ground Systems (UGS) within the next ten years. There is a need to enhance UGS capabilities to support remote Intelligence, Surveillance, Reconnaissance (ISR) operations involving the identification of High-Value Individuals (HVI). Emerging UGS capability requirements will inevitably result in new or revised training requirements. The U.S. Army identifies Simulation-Based Training (SBT) as a required training platform for robot-aided ISR tasks utilizing UGSs. In order to implement an effective SBT system, there are several factors to consider related to training systems design and trainee needs. Factors addressed in this study include the selection of effective SBT instructional strategies and the impact on trainee motivation and engagement. Results from this study contribute to design and future research recommendations regarding SBT for robot-aided ISR tasks.

Assessing Engagement in Simulation-Based Training Systems for Virtual Kinesic Cue Detection Training

Combat Profiling techniques strengthen a Warfighter’s ability to quickly react to situations within the operational environment based upon observable behavioral identifiers. One significant domain-specific skill researched is kinesics, or the study of body language. A Warfighter’s ability to distinguish kinesic cues can greatly aid in the detection of possible threatening activities or individuals with harmful intent. This paper describes a research effort assessing the effectiveness of kinesic cue depiction within Simulation-Based Training (SBT) systems and the impact of engagement levels upon trainee performance. For this experiment, live training content served as the foundation for scenarios generated using Bohemia Interactive’s Virtual Battlespace 2 (VBS2). Training content was presented on a standard desktop computer or within a physically immersive Virtual Environment (VE). Results suggest that the utilization of a highly immersive VE is not critical to achieve optimal performance during familiarization training of kinesic cue detection. While there was not a significant difference in engagement between conditions, the data showed evidence to suggest decreased levels of engagement by participants using the immersive VE. Further analysis revealed that temporal dissociation, which was significantly lower in the immersive VE condition, was a predictor of simulation engagement. In one respect, this indicates that standard desktop systems are suited for transitioning existing kinesic familiarization training content from the classroom to a personal computer. However, interpretation of the results requires operational context that suggests the capabilities of high-fidelity immersive VEs are not fully utilized by existing training methodologies. Thus, this research serves as an illustration of technology advancements compelling the SBT community to evolve training methods in order to fully benefit from emerging technologies.

Mixed Reality Training of Military Tasks: Comparison of Two Approaches Through Reactions from Subject Matter Experts

This paper discusses a training-based comparison of two mixed reality military trainers utilizing simulation elements that are categorized on different areas of the virtuality continuum. The comparison encompassed exposing subject matter experts (SMEs) to the training systems. Independent groups of SMEs interacted with each system through conducting expert system evaluations. Independent groups of military officers experienced each system for call for fire/close air support training. Following these exposures, participants were queried on the constructs of simulator sickness, training utility, simulator fidelity, usability, and immersion. The results are contrasted and discussed. The outcomes of this comparison serve to promote discussion among the scientific community concerning the training tradeoffs affected by the virtuality continuum.

Impact of Instructional Strategies on Workload, Stress, and Flow in Simulation-Based Training for Behavior Cue Analysis

The U.S. Army desires to improve Intelligence, Surveillance, Reconnaissance (ISR) abilities by incorporating Unmanned Ground Systems (UGS) to aid in the identification of High Value Individuals (HVI) through the analysis of human behavior cues from safer distances. This requires analysts to employ perceptual skills indirectly via UGS video surveillance displays and will also require training platforms tailored to address the perceptual skill needs of these robot-aided ISR tasks. The U.S. Army identifies Simulation-Based Training (SBT) as a necessary training medium for UGS technologies. Instructional strategies that may increase the effectiveness of SBT for robot-aided ISR tasks include Highlighting and Massed Exposure. This study compared the impact of each strategy on trainee workload, stress, and flow during SBT for a behavior cue analysis task. Ultimately, the goal of this research effort is to provide instructional design recommendations that will improve SBT development to support effective training for emerging UGS capabilities.

Training Effectiveness Evaluation: Call for Fire Trainer – Augmented Virtuality (CFFT-AV)

As emerging technologies continue to modernize battlefield systems, the use of Mixed Reality (MR) training has been increasingly proposed as a lower cost and more time-effective alternative to live training. However, there has been minimal empirical data to demonstrate the effectiveness of MR type training which leaders require to make informed decisions about training device acquisition. In an effort to assist in the decision making process of future training system acquisition a Training Effectiveness Evaluation (TEE) is being conducted by U.S. Army Research Laboratory (ARL) Human Research and Engineering Directorate (HRED), Simulation and Training Technology Center (STTC) on the Call for Fire Trainer – Augmented Virtuality (CFFT-AV). This paper describes the methodology of the TEE with regard to the effectiveness of AV as a platform within the Call for Fire (CFF) task domain and how AV technologies and methods can impact CFF training.

Effects of Visual Fidelity on Biometric Cue Detection in Virtual Combat Profiling Training

Combat Profiling involves observation of humans and the environment to identify behavioral anomalies signifying the presence of a potential threat. Desires to expand accessibility to Combat Profiling training motivate the training community to investigate Virtual Environments (VEs). VE design recommendations will benefit efforts to translate Combat Profiling training methods to virtual platforms. Visual aspects of virtual environments may significantly impact observational and perceptual training objectives. This experiment compared the effects of high and low fidelity virtual characters for biometric cue detection training on participant performance and perceptions. Results suggest that high fidelity virtual characters promote positive training perceptions and self-efficacy, but do not significantly impact overall performance.

Effects of Autonomous vs. Remotely-Operated Unmanned Weapon Systems on Human-Robot Teamwork and Trust

In the United States Military, 2011 marks the third year of a 25 year plan to increase the number of unmanned systems across the air, ground, and maritime domains. These systems perform as members of human-robot teams either autonomously or by remote-operation. The success of employing unmanned systems in coordination with human team members depends on system capabilities which support teamwork and trust. Weaponization of these systems introduces new concerns in teamwork and trust research. This paper presents research comparing the effects of autonomous and remotely-operated unmanned weapon systems on human-robot teamwork and trust. The results will contribute to the development of recommended roles and automation levels for future weaponized robotic systems.

A Performance-Based Training Evaluation for an Augmented Virtuality Call for Fire Training System

A Call for Fire is a complex task requiring specialized training and is performed by a Joint Forward Observer (JFO). As newer technologies become available, innovative ways of incorporating mixed reality into simulation-based training becomes possible. One such approach is through augmented virtuality (AV). AV mixes a heavily virtual environment with interactive objects in the real world, which differs from augmented reality in that the latter overlays virtual elements into a representation of the real world. An AV Call for Fire Simulator was developed in order to assess the efficacy of AV technology for simulation-based training in the JFO training course. This paper describes a training effectiveness evaluation conducted to assess the overall effectiveness of AV integration into current training standards and methodologies.

Leveraging Stress and Intrinsic Motivation to Assess Scaffolding During Simulation-Based Training

Instructional designers in the Simulation-Based Training (SBT) community are becoming increasingly interested in incorporating scaffolding strategies into the SBT pedagogical paradigm. Scaffolding models of instruction involve the adaptation of instructional delivery methods or content so that the learner may gradually acquire the knowledge or skill until mastery and independence are achieved [1, 2]. One goal for incorporating scaffolding models into SBT is to bridge the gap between trainees’ immediate knowledge and skill with their potential level of understanding when provided with scaffolded support. This gap represents an optimal level of learning often referred to as the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). ZPD may be maintained dynamically through the adjustment of instructional support and challenge levels [3]. Theoretically, for ZPD to be achieved, the training experience should be neither too easy nor too difficult. A challenge in implementing scaffolding in SBT and assessing its effectiveness is the lack of metrics to measure a trainee’s ZPD. Therefore, this study investigates the use of stress and intrinsic motivation metrics using the Dundee Stress State Questionnaire (DSSQ) and the Intrinsic Motivation Inventory (IMI) to assess the level of challenge elicited by selected instructional strategies in SBT for behavior cue analysis. Participants completed pre-test, training, practice, and post-test scenarios in one of three conditions including a Control and two instructional strategy conditions, Massed Exposure and Highlighting. Participants reported their stress using the DSSQ after each training and practice scenario and overall intrinsic motivation using the IMI at the end of all scenarios. Results compared stress and intrinsic motivation levels between conditions. Ultimately, the results indicate that Massed Exposure strategy may be preferable to maintain ZPD during SBT for behavior cue analysis.