Juliette Schaafsma

Cross‐cultural differences in emotion suppression in everyday interactions

Previous research suggests that in collectivistic cultures, people tend to suppress their emotions more than in individualistic cultures. Little research, however, has explored cross-cultural differences in emotion regulation in everyday interactions. Using a daily social interaction method, we examined whether people from collectivistic backgrounds (Chinese exchange students and immigrants from the Moluccas, Indonesia) living in the Netherlands differed from those from individualistic backgrounds (Dutch natives) in emotion suppression during everyday interactions. We also examined whether this depended on their relationship with the interaction partner(s). We found that Chinese participants suppressed positive and negative emotions more than Dutch and Moluccan participants and that this was related to differences in interdependent and independent self-construal across the samples. We also found that Chinese participants suppressed positive emotions less in interactions with close others, whereas Dutch participants suppressed negative emotions more with non-close others. No such differences were found for Moluccans. Our findings support the idea that people from collectivistic cultures suppress emotions more than those from individualistic cultures, but they also suggest that this depends on who the interaction partner is. Furthermore, they suggest that emotion suppression may change when people with collectivistic backgrounds have been raised in individualistic cultures.

Self-Construal and the Intra- and Interethnic Social Interactions of Ethnic Minorities

This study examined relationships between self-construal and the quality of daily interactions of three ethnic minority groups in Europe: ethnic Turks and Moroccans in the Netherlands and Chechens in Poland. They described the social interactions they had for 2 weeks and they completed measures of independent and interdependent self-construal. We expected that, regardless of whether individuals’ self-construals match with prevailing construals in the host society, interdependent self-construal would be positively related to the quality of intra- and interethnic contact. The results largely confirmed this expectation. Across the two samples, participants who were higher in interdependent self-construal had more positive (and less negative) interactions than participants who were lower in interdependent self-construal. Some of these relationships varied as a function of whether or not a majority group member was present, however. Persons with a more interdependent construal of self felt more liked, respected, accepted, and free to express opinion during interactions in which a majority group member was present, whereas no such relationships were found for intra-ethnic interactions. There were very few relationships between independent self-construal and the quality of either intra- or interethnic contact. The results suggest that for the quality of ethnic minorities’ daily interactions, their interpersonal orientation is more important than a match between their orientation and the dominant orientation of the majority culture.

Functional status, behaviour and social interaction of residents with dementia living in small-scale and traditional long-term care settings in the Netherlands and Belgium

Study background: The aim of this study was to examine how residents with dementia living in small-scale and traditional long-term care settings in the Netherlands and Belgium differ in terms of activities of daily living, behavioural problems, depression, use of restraints, psychotropic medication, social engagement and visiting frequency of relatives. Methods: The study had a longitudinal design with a time interval of one year. Participants were 179 residents with dementia in Dutch small-scale (N=51) and traditional (N=51), and Belgian small-scale (N=47) and traditional (N=30) care settings. Data were obtained by professional caregivers using validated observational measurement instruments. Results: Results show few differences between residents in small-scale and traditional settings in the two countries. In the Netherlands, residents in small-scale settings were more socially engaged and better able to perform activities of daily living compared to residents in traditional settings. In Belgium, residents in small-scale settings were also better able to perform activities of daily living, and showed fewer depressive symptoms than residents in traditional settings. Over time, activities of daily living decreased in residents of both small-scale and traditional settings in both countries. Social engagement also decreased in both countries among residents in small-scale settings but remained stable among residents in traditional settings. Furthermore, behavioural problems decreased over time in traditional settings in both countries, but remained stable in small-scale settings. Conclusions: Relatively few differences were found between small-scale and traditional settings in the two countries as regards residents’ social engagement, activities of daily living, depression and behavioural problems. The assumption made in policy and practice, however, is that living in small-scale settings is better for residents with dementia. To better understand why small-scale settings may not always be more beneficial for residents compared to traditional settings, future research should examine the patterns found in this study in more depth.

Under the bridge: An in-depth examination of online trolling in the gaming context:

Trolling is a subject of apparent academic confusion; the few studies conducted thus far yielded a variety of conflicting definitions regarding what constitutes trolling behaviour and little information regarding trolling motivations. In order to shed further light on this phenomenon, the present study aimed to (1) determine which behaviours actual trolls consider as trolling, (2) explore the motivations behind trolling, and (3) examine the online community’s response to trolling as perceived by the troll. After performing semi-structured interviews with 22 self-confessed trolls, we found that there is a variety of behaviours trolls consider trolling which can now be put in clear categories based on target and method. Three key motivations to troll emerged: personal enjoyment, revenge, and thrill-seeking. Trolling also appears to be a cyclical, self-perpetuating phenomenon enabled by the online community at large. Theoretical implications for future trolling research are also discussed.

Cross-cultural similarities and differences in motives to forgive: A comparison between and within cultures

Recently, researchers have begun to explore peoples motives to forgive those who have offended them. Using a recall method, we examined whether such motives (relationship-, offender- or self-focused) differ between and within cultures that are more collectivistic (Moluccan Islands in Indonesia) or more individualistic (the Netherlands) and whether this depends on peoples relationship with the offender. More specifically, we examined the idea that other-focused motives should be more important in cultures that are more collectivistic and that self-focused motives should prevail in more individualistic cultures. We found that Moluccan participants indeed endorsed relationship- and offender-focused motives more than Dutch participants. Moluccan and Dutch participants did not, however, differ in the extent to which they endorsed self-focused motives. Furthermore, Dutch participants were more likely to endorse relationship motives (especially in close relations) than self-focused motives. For Moluccan participants, relationship-, offender- and self-focused motives were equally important and also did not depend on how close they were with the offender. Differences between the samples could not be explained by the extent to which people defined themselves as more independent or interdependent. The implications of these findings for future research on forgiveness motives are discussed.

Motives to (not) forgive deviant group members: A comparison within and between cultures

This study examines peoples motives to (not) forgive group members who violate an important group norm. More specifically, we attempt to determine what is the primary focus in such a situation (the group, the offender, the relationship, or the self), and whether this depends on how important the group is and on the cultural context (more individualist or more collectivist). Our sample includes Moluccans living in Indonesia (more collectivist) and Moluccans in the Netherlands (more individualist). Participants were asked to evaluate a scenario in which a group member (close or nonclose other) violated an important group norm. We find that Indonesian Moluccans are more likely not to forgive group members who violate a group norm than Dutch Moluccans. This finding suggests that the group is more important to Indonesian Moluccans. Across the two samples, however, participants were more inclined to forgive an ingroup deviant for the benefit of this person or their relationship than for the benefit of the group. Interestingly, self‐focused concerns were more important among Indonesian Moluccans and differences between the samples in the relative importance of the different motives could not be explained by peoples self‐definition (i.e., more independent or interdependent). Implications of these findings for the literature on forgiveness and on individualism–collectivism are discussed.