Junxiang Yin

CX3CR1 deficiency suppresses activation and neurotoxicity of microglia/macrophage in experimental ischemic stroke

BackgroundChemokine (C-X3-C motif) ligand 1 (CX3CL1)/ CX3C chemokine receptor 1 (CX3CR1) signaling is important in modulating the communication between neurons and resident microglia/migrated macrophages in the central nervous system (CNS). Although CX3CR1 deficiency is associated with an improved outcome following ischemic brain injury, the mechanism of this observation is largely unknown. The aim of this study was to investigate how CX3CR1 deficiency influences microglia/macrophage functions in the context of its protection following brain ischemia.MethodsWild-type (WT) and CX3CR1-deficient (CX3CR1-/-) mice were subjected to transient middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) and reperfusion. The ischemic brain damage was monitored by rodent high-field magnetic resonance imaging. Neurological deficit was assessed daily. Neuronal apoptotic death and reactive oxygen species (ROS) production were analyzed by immunostaining and live imaging. Activation/inflammatory response of microglia/macrophage were assessed using immunohistochemistry, flow cytometry, 5-bromo-2-deoxyuridine labeling, cytokine ELISA, and real-time PCR.ResultsCX3CR1-/- mice displayed significantly smaller infarcts and less severe neurological deficits compared to WT controls, following MCAO. In addition, CX3CR1-/- MCAO mice displayed fewer apoptotic neurons and reduced ROS levels. Impaired CX3CR1 signaling abrogated the recruitment of monocyte-derived macrophages from the periphery, suppressed the proliferation of CNS microglia and infiltrated macrophage, facilitated the alternative activation (M2 state) of microglia/macrophages, and attenuated their ability to synthesize and release inflammatory cytokines.ConclusionOur results suggest that inhibition of CX3CR1 signaling could function as a therapeutic modality in ischemic brain injury, by reducing recruitment of peripheral macrophages and expansion/activation of CNS microglia and macrophages, resulting in protection of neurological function.

Pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide protects against β-amyloid toxicity

Pituitary adenylate cyclase activating polypeptide (PACAP) is a neurotrophin. However, its role in human Alzheimers disease (AD) is largely unknown. We examined PACAP expression in postmortem human AD and triple transgenic mouse (3xTG, Psen1/APPSwe/TauP301L) brains. We established an in vitro model of primary neuronal cell culture to study the protective effects of PACAP against β-amyloid (Aβ) toxicity. We further studied the PACAP-Sirtuin 3 (Sirt3) pathway on mitochondrial function. PACAP expression was reduced in AD and 3xTG mouse brains. This reduction was inversely correlated with Aβ and tau protein levels. Treatment with PACAP effectively protected neurons against Aβ toxicity. PACAP stimulated mitochondrial Sirt3 production. Similar to PACAP, Sirt3 was reduced in AD and 3xTG brains. Knocking down Sirt3 compromised the neuroprotective effects of PACAP, and this was reversed by over-expressing Sirt3. PACAP is reduced in AD and may represent a novel therapeutic strategy.

Pituitary adenylate cyclase–activating polypeptide is reduced in Alzheimer disease

Objectives: There is growing evidence that pituitary adenylate cyclase–activating polypeptide (PACAP) is associated with Alzheimer disease (AD) pathology in animal models, but human studies are needed. Methods: We studied the brains of patients with pathologically confirmed late-onset AD and age-matched cognitively normal (CN) subjects to investigate the expression of PACAP messenger RNA (34 AD and 14 CN) and protein (12 AD and 11 CN) in a case-control study. Results: We report that PACAP levels are reduced in multiple brain regions, including the entorhinal cortex, the middle temporal gyrus, the superior frontal gyrus, and the primary visual cortex. This reduction is correlated with higher amyloid burden (CERAD plaque density) in the entorhinal cortex and superior frontal gyrus but not in the primary visual cortex, a region spared in most cases of AD. PACAP expression is lower in advanced Braak stages (V and VI) than in moderate stages (III and IV). Increased PACAP levels are associated with decreased scores on the Dementia Rating Scale, a global cognitive measure. Finally, CSF levels paralleled brain levels in AD but not in Parkinson dementia or frontotemporal dementia brains. Conclusions: The close relationship between PACAP reduction and the severity of AD pathology suggests that downregulation of PACAP may contribute to AD pathogenesis.

Association of pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide with cognitive decline in mild cognitive impairment due to Alzheimer disease.

IMPORTANCE There is a deficit of pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP) in patients with neuropathologically confirmed Alzheimer dementia. However, whether this deficit is associated with the earlier stages of Alzheimer disease (AD) is unknown. This study was conducted to clarify the association between PACAP biomarkers and preclinical, mild cognitive impairment (MCI), and dementia stages of AD in postmortem brain tissue. OBJECTIVES To examine PACAP and PACAP receptor levels in postmortem brain tissues and cerebrospinal fluid from cognitively and neuropathologically normal control individuals, patients with MCI due to AD (MCI-AD), and individuals with AD; analyze the relationship between PACAP, cognitive, and pathologic features; and propose a model to assess these relationships. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS We measured PACAP and its receptor (PAC1) levels using enzyme-linked immunoassay. A total of 35 cases were included. All the brain tissue and cerebrospinal fluid samples were selected from Banner Sun Health Research Institute Brain and Body Donation Program. All cognitive test results were in record with the Arizona Alzheimers Consortium. MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES A comparison of PACAP and PAC1 levels among the healthy controls, MCI-AD, and AD dementia groups, as well as a systematic correlation analysis between PACAP level, cognitive performance, and pathologic severity. RESULTS The PACAP levels in cerebrospinal fluid, the superior frontal gyrus, and the middle temporal gyrus were inversely related to dementia severity. The PACAP levels in cerebrospinal fluid correlated with the Mattis Dementia Rating Scale score (Pearson r = 0.50; P = .03) and inversely correlated with total amyloid plaques (Pearson r = -0.48; P < .01) and tangles (Pearson r = -0.55; P = .01) in the brain. The PACAP in the superior frontal gyrus and middle temporal gyrus correlated with the Stroop Color-Word Interference Test (Pearson r = 0.58; P < .01) and the Auditory Verbal Learning Test-Total Learning (Pearson r = 0.33; P = .02), respectively. The PACAP in the primary visual cortex did not correlate with the Judgment of Line orientation test (P = .14). Furthermore, the PAC1 level in the superior frontal gyrus showed an upregulation in MCI-AD but not in AD. The pharmacodynamic model of the PACAP-PAC1 interaction best predicted cognitive function in the superior frontal gyrus, but it was less predictive in the middle temporal gyrus and failed to be predictive in the primary visual cortex. CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE Deficits in PACAP are associated with clinical severity in the MCI and dementia stages of AD. Additional studies are needed to clarify the role of PACAP deficits in the predisposition to, pathogenesis of, and treatment of AD.

Interleukin-17 inhibits Adult Hippocampal Neurogenesis

Interleukin 17(A) (IL-17) is a potent pro-inflammatory cytokine that acts as a central regulator of inflammatory response within the brain, but its physiological roles under non-inflammatory conditions remain elusive. Here we report that endogenous IL-17 ablates neurogenesis in the adult dentate gyrus (DG) of hippocampus. Genetic deletion of IL-17 increased the number of adult-born neurons in the DG. Further, we found that IL-17 deletion altered cytokine network, facilitated basal excitatory synaptic transmission, enhanced intrinsic neuronal excitability, and increased expression of proneuronal genes in neuronal progenitor cells (NPCs). Our findings suggest a profound role of IL-17 in the negative regulation of adult hippocampal neurogenesis under physiology conditions.

Association of amyloid burden, brain atrophy and memory deficits in aged apolipoprotein ε4 mice.

Apolipoprotein E ε4 allele (ApoE4) has been associated with increased risk of sporadic Alzheimers disease (AD) and of conversion from mild cognitive impairment to AD. But the underlying mechanism of ApoE4 affecting brain atrophy and cognition is not fully understood. We investigated the effect of ApoE4 on amyloid beta (Aβ) protein burden and its correlation with the structure change of hippocampus and cortex, cognitive and behavioral changes in ApoE4 transgenic mice. Male ApoE4 transgenic mice and age-matched control mice at age 12 months and 24 months were tested in the Morris Water Maze (MWM). Brain volume changes (including whole brain, hippocampus, cortex, total ventricles and caudate putamen) were assessed by using small animal 7T-MRI. Aβ level was assessed by immunohistochemistry (IHC) and immunoprecipitation/western blot. In MWM, escape latency was longer and time spent in the target quadrant was shorter in aged ApoE4 mice (12- and 24-month-old), suggesting age- and ApoE4-dependent visuospatial deficits. Atrophy on MRI was prominent in the hippocampus (p=0.039) and cortex (p=0.013) of ApoE4 mice (24-month-old) as compared to age-matched control mice. IHC revealed elevated Aβ deposition in the hippocampus. Consistently, both soluble and insoluble Aβ aggregates were increased in aged ApoE4 mice. This increase was correlated inversely with hippocampal atrophy and cognitive deficits. These data give further evidence that ApoE4 plays an important role in brain atrophy and memory impairment by modulating amyloid production and deposition.

Pertussis toxin reduces calcium influx to protect ischemic stroke in a middle cerebral artery occlusion model.

Increased calcium influx secondary to glutamate induced excitotoxicity initiates and potentiates devastating pathological changes following ischemic stroke. Pertussis toxin (PTx), a G‐protein blocker, is known to suppress intracellular calcium accumulation. We hypothesize that PTx can protect against stroke by blocking calcium influx. In a permanent middle cerebral artery occlusion model, PTx (1000 ng) was given intraperitoneally 30 min after inducing stroke. Magnetic Resonance Imaging of perfusion and T2‐weighted brain scans were obtained to evaluate cerebral blood flow (CBF) and infarct volume. Primary neuronal culture was used to test glutamate induced excitotoxicity and calcium influx. We established a non‐linear exponential curve model to minimize variations in animal cerebrovasculature. A reduction of 40–60% in relative CBF was a critical window where infarct volume started to increase as rCBF reduced. PTx showed maximal effects in reducing infarct volume at this window. In vitro studies further demonstrated PTx increased neuronal cell survival by decreasing glutamate‐induced calcium influx into neurons and preventing neurons from apoptosis. PTx salvages the ischemic penumbra by blocking calcium influx. This provides us a new mechanism upon which experimental therapies can be explored to treat ischemic stroke.

Anaplastic astrocytoma masquerading as hemorrhagic stroke.

Although primary and metastatic brain tumors can cause intracranial hemorrhage, thalamic hemorrhage as the first presentation of an anaplastic astrocytoma has not been reported. We report a 47-year-old man who first presented with hypertensive hemorrhagic stroke. He improved with aggressive blood pressure control and recovered with minimal residual deficit within 10 days. This led to the initial misdiagnosis of uncontrolled hypertension as the cause of the stroke. He deteriorated rapidly 4 months later. A biopsy revealed an anaplastic astrocytoma. Misdiagnosis of tumor as stroke can occur in patients with vascular risk factors who do not have a previous history of neoplasia. Our case report is to heighten the awareness of the incidence of tumor apoplexy masquerading as stroke.

Ischemia-induced Neuronal Cell Death Is Mediated by Chemokine Receptor CX3CR1

The chemokine fractalkine (CX3CL1) and its receptor CX3CR1 play a fundamental role in the pathophysiology of stroke. Previous studies have focused on a paracrine interaction between neurons that produce fractalkine and microglia that express CX3CR1 receptors in the central nervous system. Recent findings have demonstrated the functional expression of CX3CR1 receptors by hippocampal neurons, suggesting their involvement in neuroprotective and neurodegenerative actions. To elucidate the roles of neuronal CX3CR1 in neurodegeneration induced by ischemic stroke, a mouse model of permanent middle cerebral artery occlusion (pMCAO) was employed. In the pMCAO mice, increased CX3CR1 levels, apoptosis-associated morphological changes, and Caspase 3-positive neuronal cells were observed in the striatum and in the hippocampus 24 hours after occlusion. Upregulation of CX3CR1 in ischemic neurons is associated with neuronal apoptotic cell death. In contrast, ischemia-induced apoptotic neuronal cell death was decreased in CX3CR1 deficient mice. Cultured primary hippocampal neurons obtained from CX3CR1 deficient mice were more resistant to glutamate-induced excitotoxicity by blocking calcium influx than those from wild-type mice. For the first time, we reported that neuronal CXCR1 mediates neuronal apoptotic cell death in ischemia. Our results suggest that modulating CXCR1 activity offers a novel therapeutic strategy for stroke.

The Impact of Aging on Brain Pituitary Adenylate Cyclase Activating Polypeptide, Pathology and Cognition in Mice and Rhesus Macaques

Pituitary adenylate cyclase activating polypeptide (PACAP) is associated with Alzheimer’s disease (AD), but its age-related effects are unknown. We chose the rhesus macaque due to its closeness to human anatomy and physiology. We examined four variables: aging, cognitive performance, amyloid plaques and PACAP. Delayed nonmatching-to-sample recognition memory scores declined with age and correlated with PACAP levels in the striatum, parietal and temporal lobes. Because amyloid plaques were the only AD pathology in the old rhesus macaque, we further studied human amyloid precursor protein (hAPP) transgenic mice. Aging was associated with decreased performance in the Morris Water Maze (MWM). In wild type (WT) C57BL/6 mice, the performance was decreased at age 24–26 month whereas in hAPP transgenic mice, it was decreased as early as 9–12 month. Neuritic plaques in adult hAPP mice clustered in hippocampus and adjacent cortical regions, but did not propagate further into the frontal cortex. Cerebral PACAP protein levels were reduced in hAPP mice compared to age-matched WT mice, but the genetic predisposition dominated cognitive decline. Taken together, these data suggest an association among PACAP levels, aging, cognitive function and amyloid load in nonhuman primates, with both similarities and differences from human AD brains. Our results suggest caution in choosing animal models and in extrapolating data to human AD studies.