Jürgen Giessing

Clarity in Reporting Terminology and Definitions of Set End Points in Resistance Training

Previous resistance training (RT) recommendations and position stands have addressed variables that can be manipulated when producing RT interventions. However, 1 variable that has received little discussion is set endpoints (i.e., the endpoint of a set of repetitions). Set endpoints in RT are often considered to be proximity to momentary failure and are thought to be a primary variable determining effort in RT. Further, there has been ambiguity in the use and definition of terminology that has created issues in interpretation of research findings. The purpose of this paper was to: (1) provide an overview of the ambiguity in historical terminology around set endpoints; (2) propose a clearer set of definitions related to set endpoints; and (3) highlight the issues created by poor terminology and definitions. It is hoped this may permit greater clarity in reporting, interpretation, and application of RT interventions for researchers and practitioners. Muscle Nerve 56: 368–374, 2017

Reliability of meta-analyses to evaluate resistance training programmes

Reliability of meta-analyses to evaluate resistance training programmes Antonio Arruda, Daniel Souza, James Steele, James Fisher, Jürgen Giessing & Paulo Gentil To cite this article: Antonio Arruda, Daniel Souza, James Steele, James Fisher, Jürgen Giessing & Paulo Gentil (2016): Reliability of meta-analyses to evaluate resistance training programmes, Journal of Sports Sciences, DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2016.1243799 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2016.1243799

A minimal dose approach to resistance training for the older adult; the prophylactic for aging

ABSTRACT A plethora of research has supported the numerous health benefits of resistance training as we age, including positive relationships between muscular strength, muscle mass and reduced all‐cause mortality. As such, resistance training has been referred to as medicine. However, participation and adherence remains low, with time constraints and perceived difficulty often cited as barriers to resistance training. With this in mind, we aimed to summarise the benefits which might be obtained as a product of a minimal dose approach. In this sense, participation in resistance training might serve as a prophylactic to delay or prevent the onset of biological aging. A short review of studies reporting considerable health benefits resulting from low volume resistance training participation is presented, specifically considering the training time, frequency, intensity of effort, and exercises performed. Research supports the considerable physiological and psychological health benefits from resistance training and suggests that these can be obtained using a minimal dose approach (e.g. ≤ 60 min, 2 d‐wk− 1), using uncomplicated equipment/methods (e.g. weight stack machines). Our hope is that discussion of these specific recommendations, and provision of an example minimal dose workout, will promote resistance training participation by persons who might otherwise have not engaged. We also encourage medical professionals to use this information to prescribe resistance exercise like a drug whilst having an awareness of the health benefits and uncomplicated methods.

The Effects of 6 Months of Progressive High Effort Resistance Training Methods upon Strength, Body Composition, Function, and Wellbeing of Elderly Adults

Purpose The present study examined the progressive implementation of a high effort resistance training (RT) approach in older adults over 6 months and through a 6-month follow-up on strength, body composition, function, and wellbeing of older adults. Methods Twenty-three older adults (aged 61 to 80 years) completed a 6-month supervised RT intervention applying progressive introduction of higher effort set end points. After completion of the intervention participants could choose to continue performing RT unsupervised until 6-month follow-up. Results Strength, body composition, function, and wellbeing all significantly improved over the intervention. Over the follow-up, body composition changes reverted to baseline values, strength was reduced though it remained significantly higher than baseline, and wellbeing outcomes were mostly maintained. Comparisons over the follow-up between those who did and those who did not continue with RT revealed no significant differences for changes in any outcome measure. Conclusions Supervised RT employing progressive application of high effort set end points is well tolerated and effective in improving strength, body composition, function, and wellbeing in older adults. However, whether participants continued, or did not, with RT unsupervised at follow-up had no effect on outcomes perhaps due to reduced effort employed during unsupervised RT.

Fatigue and perceptual responses of heavier- and lighter-load isolated lumbar extension resistance exercise in males and females

Background There is a lack of research considering acute fatigue responses to high- and low-load resistance training as well as the comparison between male and female responses. Furthermore, limited studies have considered fatigue response testing with the inclusion of perceptions of discomfort and exertion. Methods The present study included males (n = 9; 23.8 ± 6.4 years; 176.7 ± 6.2 cm; 73.9 ± 9.3 kg) and females (n = 8; 21.3 ± 0.9 years; 170.5 ± 6.1 cm; 65.5 ± 10.8 kg) who were assessed for differences in fatigue (i.e., loss of torque at maximal voluntary contraction (MVC)) immediately following isolated lumbar extension (ILEX) exercise at heavy- (HL) and light-(LL) loads (80% and 50% MVC, respectively). Participants also reported perceptual measures of effort (RPE-E) and discomfort (RPE-D) between different resistance training protocols. Results Analysis of variance revealed significantly greater absolute and relative fatigue following LL compared to HL conditions (p < 0.001). Absolute fatigue significantly differed between males and females (p = 0.012), though relative fatigue was not significantly different (p = 0.160). However, effect sizes for absolute fatigue (HL; Males = −1.84, Females = −0.83; LL; Males = −3.11, Females = −2.39) and relative fatigue (HL; Males = −2.17, Females = −0.76; LL; Males = −3.36, Females = −3.08) were larger for males in both HL and LL conditions. RPE-E was maximal for all participants in both conditions, but RPE-D was significantly higher in LL compared to HL (p < 0.001) with no difference between males and females. Discussion Our data suggests that females do not incur the same degree of fatigue as males following similar exercise protocols, and indeed that females might be able to sustain longer exercise duration at the same relative loads. As such females should manipulate training variables accordingly, perhaps performing greater repetitions at a relative load, or using heavier relative loads than males. Furthermore, since lighter load exercise is often prescribed in rehabilitation settings (particularly for the lumbar extensors) it seems prudent to know that this might not be necessary to strengthen musculature and indeed might be contraindicated to avoid the increased fatigue and discomfort associated with LL exercise.

Phase Angle as an Indicator of Health and Fitness in Patients Entering an Exercise Referral Scheme

Body fat (Constant) 51.580** 58.165** 52.127** PhA 2.193* 0.187 2.649* 0.226 0.337 0.029 Age 0.076 0.099 0.111* 0.145 Sex 15.994** 0.714 Lean body mass (Constant) 21.530* 20.281 26.783* PhA 5.351** 0.366 5.438** 0.372 2.223* 0.152 Age 0.014 0.015 0.188* 0.196 Sex 17.225** 1.934 Muscular strength (Constant) 6.092 5.339 0.324 To the Editor: The loss of function as we age may be related to changes at the cellular level.1 Recently, attention has been given to measurement of the phase angle (PhA); a noninvasive simple measure using bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA). Indeed, PhA is considered a valuable indicator of cellular health and, as it is derived purely from electrical properties of the tissue, it avoids typical concerns associated with BIA using prediction equations. PhA is calculated from the arctangent of the ratio between the resistance and reactance from BIA, and a number of studies have evidenced its associations with age and sex,2 lean body mass,3 and strength.4 Indeed, PhA has even been shown to be predictive of mortality risk.4 Physical fitness is important for health and longevity, and it has been argued that measurements should be considered routinely in clinical practice.5,6 Yet, many general practioners (GPs) have too little time to engage in discussions around physical activity or fitness, let alone their measurement.7 However, BIA is a quick and simple measure and, if PhA is predictive of such outcomes, may offer a valuable alternative for GPs and other clinical practitioners. Despite various studies in other specific clinical populations,4,8,9 there is little research considering the typical person at elevated risk of cardiometabolic disease or type 2 diabetes who might present to a GP and be referred for exercise. As such, the aim of this study was to examine the predictive value of PhA with respect to these measures in a sample of exercise referral patients. This study was a cross-sectional analysis of data collected in a wider trial of exercise referral schemes from 146 patients whowere overweight and/or obese [body mass index (BMI) 25e35], and/or at increased risk of type 2 diabetes as determined by their GP. Relationships between PhA and a range of common health measures used as risk factors including BMI, systolic blood pressure, diastolic blood pressure, and body fat were examined, in addition to lean body mass, muscular strength, and cardiorespiratory fitness. The Pearson or Spearman correlations were performed dependent upon distribution and 95% confidence intervals calculated. Hierarchical multiple linear regression was also performed by examining the predictive capacity of PhA as the independent variable upon dependent variables and adjusting for inclusion of both age and sex. An a of 0.05 was accepted as the threshold for statistical significance.

Ability to predict repetitions to momentary failure is not perfectly accurate, though improves with resistance training experience

‘Repetitions in Reserve’ (RIR) scales in resistance training (RT) are used to control effort but assume people accurately predict performance a priori (i.e. the number of possible repetitions to momentary failure (MF)). This study examined the ability of trainees with different experience levels to predict number of repetitions to MF. One hundred and forty-one participants underwent a full body RT session involving single sets to MF and were asked to predict the number of repetitions they could complete before reaching MF on each exercise. Participants underpredicted the number of repetitions they could perform to MF (Standard error of measurements [95% confidence intervals] for combined sample ranged between 2.64 [2.36–2.99] and 3.38 [3.02–3.83]). There was a tendency towards improved accuracy with greater experience. Ability to predict repetitions to MF is not perfectly accurate among most trainees though may improve with experience. Thus, RIR should be used cautiously in prescription of RT. Trainers and trainees should be aware of this as it may have implications for the attainment of training goals, particularly muscular hypertrophy.

Effects of equal-volume resistance training with different training frequencies in muscle size and strength in trained men

Background The objective of the present study was to compare the effects of equal-volume resistance training (RT) performed with different training frequencies on muscle size and strength in trained young men. Methods Sixteen men with at least one year of RT experience were divided into two groups, G1 and G2, that trained each muscle group once and twice a week, respectively, for 10 weeks. Elbow flexor muscle thickness (MT) was measured using a B-Mode ultrasound and concentric peak torque of elbow extensors and flexors were assessed by an isokinetic dynamometer. Results ANOVA did not reveal group by time interactions for any variable, indicating no difference between groups for the changes in MT or PT of elbow flexors and extensors. Notwithstanding, MT of elbow flexors increased significantly (3.1%, P < 0.05) only in G1. PT of elbow flexors and extensors did not increase significantly for any group. Discussion The present study suggest that there were no differences in the results promoted by equal-volume resistance training performed once or twice a week on upper body muscle strength in trained men. Only the group performing one session per week significantly increased the MT of their elbow flexors. However, with either once or twice a week training, adaptations appear largely minimal in previously trained males.

Physical activity, body composition, and well-being of school children and youths with visual impairments in Germany

The study compares levels of physical activity, body composition values, and emotional well-being of school-age children and youths with visual impairments (n = 115) in specialized schools with those of sighted children (n = 118) in mainstream schools. The methodology included pedometers, bioelectrical impedance analysis, and the WHO-Five Well-being Index. In all relevant parameters, students with visual impairments achieved results comparable to those of sighted students, and the degree of visual impairment did not correlate significantly with the parameters. The results confirm the positive effects and the importance of physical activity for students with visual impairments. High levels of physical activity are possible which provide health-related benefits for children and youths with visual impairments.

Protein Supplementation to Augment the Effects of High Intensity Resistance Training in Untrained Middle-Aged Males: The Randomized Controlled PUSH Trial

High intensity (resistance exercise) training (HIT) defined as a “single set resistance exercise to muscular failure” is an efficient exercise method that allows people with low time budgets to realize an adequate training stimulus. Although there is an ongoing discussion, recent meta-analysis suggests the significant superiority of multiple set (MST) methods for body composition and strength parameters. The aim of this study is to determine whether additional protein supplementation may increase the effect of a HIT-protocol on body composition and strength to an equal MST-level. One hundred and twenty untrained males 30–50 years old were randomly allocated to three groups: (a) HIT, (b) HIT and protein supplementation (HIT&P), and (c) waiting-control (CG) and (after cross-over) high volume/high-intensity-training (HVHIT). HIT was defined as “single set to failure protocol” while HVHIT consistently applied two equal sets. Protein supplementation provided an overall intake of 1.5–1.7 g/kg/d/body mass. Primary study endpoint was lean body mass (LBM). LBM significantly improved in all exercise groups (p ≤ 0.043); however only HIT&P and HVHIT differ significantly from control (p ≤ 0.002). HIT diverges significantly from HIT&P (p = 0.017) and nonsignificantly from HVHIT (p = 0.059), while no differences were observed for HIT&P versus HVHIT (p = 0.691). In conclusion, moderate to high protein supplementation significantly increases the effects of a HIT-protocol on LBM in middle-aged untrained males.