Justyna Zaborowska

Ser7 Phosphorylation of the CTD Recruits the RPAP2 Ser5 Phosphatase to snRNA Genes

Summary The carboxy-terminal domain (CTD) of the large subunit of RNA polymerase II (Pol II) comprises multiple heptapeptide repeats of the consensus Tyr1-Ser2-Pro3-Thr4-Ser5-Pro6-Ser7. Reversible phosphorylation of Ser2, Ser5, and Ser7 during the transcription cycle mediates the sequential recruitment of transcription/RNA processing factors. Phosphorylation of Ser7 is required for recruitment of the gene type-specific Integrator complex to the Pol II-transcribed small nuclear (sn)RNA genes. Here, we show that RNA Pol II-associated protein 2 (RPAP2) specifically recognizes the phospho-Ser7 mark on the Pol II CTD and also interacts with Integrator subunits. siRNA-mediated knockdown of RPAP2 and mutation of Ser7 to alanine cause similar defects in snRNA gene expression. In addition, we show that RPAP2 is a CTD Ser5 phosphatase. Taken together, our results indicate that during transcription of snRNA genes, Ser7 phosphorylation facilitates recruitment of RPAP2, which in turn both recruits Integrator and dephosphorylates Ser5.

CDK9 inhibitors define elongation checkpoints at both ends of RNA polymerase II–transcribed genes

Transcription through early-elongation checkpoints requires phosphorylation of negative transcription elongation factors (NTEFs) by the cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK) 9. Using CDK9 inhibitors and global run-on sequencing (GRO-seq), we have mapped CDK9 inhibitor–sensitive checkpoints genome wide in human cells. Our data indicate that early-elongation checkpoints are a general feature of RNA polymerase (pol) II–transcribed human genes and occur independently of polymerase stalling. Pol II that has negotiated the early-elongation checkpoint can elongate in the presence of inhibitors but, remarkably, terminates transcription prematurely close to the terminal polyadenylation (poly(A)) site. Our analysis has revealed an unexpected poly(A)-associated elongation checkpoint, which has major implications for the regulation of gene expression. Interestingly, the pattern of modification of the C-terminal domain of pol II terminated at this new checkpoint largely mirrors the pattern normally found downstream of the poly(A) site, thus suggesting common mechanisms of termination.

The pol II CTD: new twists in the tail

The C-terminal domain (CTD) of the large subunit of RNA polymerase (pol) II comprises conserved heptad repeats, and post-translational modification of the CTD regulates transcription and cotranscriptional RNA processing. Recently, the spatial patterns of modification of the CTD repeats have been investigated, and new functions of CTD modification have been revealed. In addition, there are new insights into the roles of the enzymes that decorate the CTD. We review these new findings and reassess the role of the pol II CTD in the regulation of gene expression.

A novel TBP-TAF complex on RNA Polymerase II-transcribed snRNA genes

Initiation of transcription of most human genes transcribed by RNA polymerase II (RNAP II) requires the formation of a preinitiation complex comprising TFIIA, B, D, E, F, H and RNAP II. The general transcription factor TFIID is composed of the TATA-binding protein and up to 13 TBP-associated factors. During transcription of snRNA genes, RNAP II does not appear to make the transition to long-range productive elongation, as happens during transcription of protein-coding genes. In addition, recognition of the snRNA gene-type specific 3′ box RNA processing element requires initiation from an snRNA gene promoter. These characteristics may, at least in part, be driven by factors recruited to the promoter. For example, differences in the complement of TAFs might result in differential recruitment of elongation and RNA processing factors. As precedent, it already has been shown that the promoters of some protein-coding genes do not recruit all the TAFs found in TFIID. Although TAF5 has been shown to be associated with RNAP II-transcribed snRNA genes, the full complement of TAFs associated with these genes has remained unclear. Here we show, using a ChIP and siRNA-mediated approach, that the TBP/TAF complex on snRNA genes differs from that found on protein-coding genes. Interestingly, the largest TAF, TAF1, and the core TAFs, TAF10 and TAF4, are not detected on snRNA genes. We propose that this snRNA gene-specific TAF subset plays a key role in gene type-specific control of expression.

Herpes Simplex Virus 1 (HSV-1) ICP22 Protein Directly Interacts with Cyclin-Dependent Kinase (CDK)9 to Inhibit RNA Polymerase II Transcription Elongation

The Herpes Simplex Virus 1 (HSV-1)-encoded ICP22 protein plays an important role in viral infection and affects expression of host cell genes. ICP22 is known to reduce the global level of serine (Ser)2 phosphorylation of the Tyr1Ser2Pro3Thr4Ser5Pro6Ser7 heptapeptide repeats comprising the carboxy-terminal domain (CTD) of the large subunit of RNA polymerase (pol) II. Accordingly, ICP22 is thought to associate with and inhibit the activity of the positive-transcription elongation factor b (P-TEFb) pol II CTD Ser2 kinase. We show here that ICP22 causes loss of CTD Ser2 phosphorylation from pol II engaged in transcription of protein-coding genes following ectopic expression in HeLa cells and that recombinant ICP22 interacts with the CDK9 subunit of recombinant P-TEFb. ICP22 also interacts with pol II in vitro. Residues 193 to 256 of ICP22 are sufficient for interaction with CDK9 and inhibition of pol II CTD Ser2 phosphorylation but do not interact with pol II. These results indicate that discrete regions of ICP22 interact with either CDK9 or pol II and that ICP22 interacts directly with CDK9 to inhibit expression of host cell genes.

P-TEFb goes viral

Positive transcription elongation factor b (P‐TEFb), which comprises cyclin‐dependent kinase 9 (CDK9) kinase and cyclin T subunits, is an essential kinase complex in human cells. Phosphorylation of the negative elongation factors by P‐TEFb is required for productive elongation of transcription of protein‐coding genes by RNA polymerase II (pol II). In addition, P‐TEFb‐mediated phosphorylation of the carboxyl‐terminal domain (CTD) of the largest subunit of pol II mediates the recruitment of transcription and RNA processing factors during the transcription cycle. CDK9 also phosphorylates p53, a tumor suppressor that plays a central role in cellular responses to a range of stress factors. Many viral factors affect transcription by recruiting or modulating the activity of CDK9. In this review, we will focus on how the function of CDK9 is regulated by viral gene products. The central role of CDK9 in viral life cycles suggests that drugs targeting the interaction between viral products and P‐TEFb could be effective anti‐viral agents.

P-TEFb goes viral: The role of P-TEFb in viral infection

Positive transcription elongation factor b (P‐TEFb), which comprises cyclin‐dependent kinase 9 (CDK9) kinase and cyclin T subunits, is an essential kinase complex in human cells. Phosphorylation of the negative elongation factors by P‐TEFb is required for productive elongation of transcription of protein‐coding genes by RNA polymerase II (pol II). In addition, P‐TEFb‐mediated phosphorylation of the carboxyl‐terminal domain (CTD) of the largest subunit of pol II mediates the recruitment of transcription and RNA processing factors during the transcription cycle. CDK9 also phosphorylates p53, a tumor suppressor that plays a central role in cellular responses to a range of stress factors. Many viral factors affect transcription by recruiting or modulating the activity of CDK9. In this review, we will focus on how the function of CDK9 is regulated by viral gene products. The central role of CDK9 in viral life cycles suggests that drugs targeting the interaction between viral products and P‐TEFb could be effective anti‐viral agents.

CTCF regulates NELF, DSIF and P-TEFb recruitment during transcription

CTCF is a versatile transcription factor with well-established roles in chromatin organization and insulator function. Recent findings also implicate CTCF in the control of elongation by RNA polymerase (RNAP) II. Here we show that CTCF knockdown abrogates RNAP II pausing at the early elongation checkpoint of c-myc by affecting recruitment of DRB-sensitivity-inducing factor (DSIF). CTCF knockdown also causes a termination defect on the U2 snRNA genes (U2), by affecting recruitment of negative elongation factor (NELF). In addition, CTCF is required for recruitment of positive elongation factor b (P-TEFb), which phosphorylates NELF, DSIF, and Ser2 of the RNAP II CTD to activate elongation of transcription of c-myc and recognition of the snRNA gene-specific 3’ box RNA processing signal. These findings implicate CTCF in a complex network of protein:protein/protein:DNA interactions and assign a key role to CTCF in controlling RNAP II transcription through the elongation checkpoint of the protein-coding c-myc and the termination site of the non-coding U2, by regulating the recruitment and/or activity of key players in these processes.

The Polymerase Chain Reaction: PCR, qPCR, and RT-PCR

Abstract The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is a laboratory technique used for the amplification of a specific DNA fragment in a simple enzyme reaction. The basic PCR method has been modified to expand its application. Development of quantitative PCR (qPCR) has enabled detection and quantification of the target sequence in real time, while it is being synthesized. Another popular variation is reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), a technique used to detect and measure RNA. PCR technology has revolutionized the field of molecular biology and medical research. Because of its widespread use, it is important to understand the scientific principles of PCR. The aim of this chapter is to explain the concepts underlying this method and to explore the clinical usefulness and potential of this technique. The chapter also provides detailed protocols on how to undertake PCR in the laboratory, including techniques for RNA isolation, cDNA synthesis, and data analysis. A scenario in which PCR is utilized to answer a research question is also described, as well as guidance on how to troubleshoot experimental problems.