Jutta Heckhausen

A life-span theory of control.

A life-span theory of development is presented that is based on the concepts of primary and secondary control. Primary control refers to behaviors directed at the external environment and involves attempts to change the world to fit the needs and desires of the individual. Secondary control is targeted at internal processes and serves to minimize losses in, maintain, and expand existing levels of primary control. Secondary control helps the individual to cope with failure and fosters primary control by channeling motivational resources toward selected action goals throughout the life course. Primary control has functional primacy over secondary control. An analysis of extensive and diverse literatures spanning infancy through old age shows that trade-offs between primary and secondary control undergo systematic shifts across the life course in response to the opportunities and constraints encountered.

A Motivational Theory of Life-Span Development

This article had four goals. First, the authors identified a set of general challenges and questions that a life-span theory of development should address. Second, they presented a comprehensive account of their Motivational Theory of Life-Span Development. They integrated the model of optimization in primary and secondary control and the action-phase model of developmental regulation with their original life-span theory of control to present a comprehensive theory of development. Third, they reviewed the relevant empirical literature testing key propositions of the Motivational Theory of Life-Span Development. Finally, because the conceptual reach of their theory goes far beyond the current empirical base, they pointed out areas that deserve further and more focused empirical inquiry.

A life span model of successful aging.

To lay the foundation for our model, we first describe existing conceptions of successful aging, underlying assumptions of development, and criteria for success. The model presented extends the discourse on this topic in three directions: (a) It frames the discussion of successful aging in the broader context of life course development; (b) it accounts for both normative and nonnormative (i.e., exceptional) success; and (c) it integrates motivational processes into a theory of successful aging. Successful aging is equated with the development and maintenance of primary control throughout the life course, which is achieved through control-related processes that optimize selection and failure compensation functions. Selection processes regulate the choice of action goals so that diversity is maintained and positive and negative trade-offs between performance domains and life stages are taken into account. Compensation mechanisms serve to maintain, enhance, and remediate competencies and motivational resources after failure experiences. Both compensation and selection processes are motivated by desires for primary control and can be characterized in terms of primary and secondary control processes.

Motivation and self-regulation across the life span

Introduction Jutta Heckhausen and Carol S. Dweck Part I. Regulation of the Self, Action, and Development: 1. Decomposing self-regulation and self-control: the volitional components inventory Julius Kuhl and Arno Fuhrmann 2. Developmental regulation in adulthood: selection and compensation via primary and secondary control Jutta Heckhausen and Richard Schulz 3. Development of regulatory focus: promotion and prevention as ways of living E. Tory Higgins and Israela Loeb 4. Commentary: human psychological needs and the issues of volition, control, and outcome focus Richard M. Ryan Part II. Social Determinants of Motivation: 5. Social motivation and perceived responsibility in others: attributions and behavior of African-American boys labeled as aggressive Sandra Graham 6. A multidimensional perspective of social control: implications for the development of sex differences in self-valuation and depression Eva Pomerantz and Diane Ruble 7. The functional regulation of adolescent dating relationships and sexual behavior: an interaction of goals, strategies, and situations Nancy Cantor and Catherine A. Sanderson 8. Commentary: strategies for studying social influences on motivation Ellen A. Skinner Part III. Functional and Dysfunctional Control-Related Behavior in Childhood: 9. Ruminative coping with depression Susan Nolen-Hoeksema 10. The development of early self-conceptions: their relevance for motivational purposes Carol S. Dweck 11. Sociocultural influences on the development of childrens action-control beliefs Todd D. Little 12. Commentary: self-regulation, motivation and developmental psychopathology John R. Weisz Part IV. Developmental Goals in Adulthood: 13. A life-span approach to social motivation Laura L. Carstensen 14. Maintaining self-integrity and efficacy in later life: the adaptive functions of assimilative persistence and accommodative flexibility Jochen Brandtstadter 15. The willful pursuit of identity Peter M. Gollwitzer and Oliver Kirchhof 16. Commentary: motivation through the life course Richard Schulz.

Developmental Regulation Across Adulthood: Primary and Secondary Control of Age-Related Challenges

This study addresses developmental regulation in adults at different ages. A conceptual model of optimization in primary and secondary control across the life span (OPS model) is presented, and predictions about age differences in developmental regulation are derived. Developmental goals, expectations about goal attainment and control, control strategies, life satisfaction, and age identification were assessed in a sample of 510 young, middle-aged, and old adults. At increasing age, the participants expressed (a) greater awareness of a reduced potential for growth and control. (b) increased focus on age-appropriate goals for primary control striving, (c) more goals directed at the avoidance of developmental losses and fewer goals aimed at developmental gains, and (d) a stronger tendency for compensatory secondary control, as shown in greater goal flexibility, more satisfaction with present life, and identification with younger age groups.

Health stresses and depressive symptomatology in the elderly: the importance of health engagement control strategies.

The study presents cross-sectional (N = 127) and longitudinal (n = 111) analyses examining relations between health engagement control strategies (HECSs), depressive symptoms, and health stresses in elderly individuals. HECS was measured as peoples behavioral and cognitive investments toward attaining health goals. HECS was related to low levels of depressive symptoms, particularly among people experiencing acute physical symptoms. Moreover, HECS predicted reduction of depressive symptoms over time, and depressive symptomatology predicted negative change in HECS. The findings show that active investments of HECSs significantly moderate the negative affective consequences of health threats. Individuals who are characterized by low levels of HECS and high levels of depressive symptoms may be at increased risk of accelerated decline in their physical and mental health.

Perceived control over development and subjective well-being: differential benefits across adulthood.

The relationship between perceived control over development (PCD) and subjective well-being (SWB) across adulthood was examined in 3 studies. In Study 1, with 480 adults aged between 20 and 90 years, PCD was closely related to SWB. Chronological age moderated the associations between PCD and SWB beyond individual differences in health, intelligence, social support, and socioeconomic status. In the longitudinal Study 2, with 42 older adults, strong PCD was associated with increased positive affect only when desirable events had occurred previously. In Study 3, older adults experienced greater satisfaction when attributing attainment of developmental goals to their ability, whereas younger adults were more satisfied when attributing such successes to their own efforts. Findings point to adaptive adjustments of control perceptions to age-related actual control potentials across adulthood.

Optimisation by Selection and Compensation: Balancing Primary and Secondary Control in Life Span Development

Individuals as producers of their own life span development are discussed with regard to the major challenges, opportunities, and constraints encountered over the life course. Major challenges of life span development and human behaviour include the need to be selective in choosing life course paths, and the failure proneness of human behaviour. Management mechanisms directed at these challenges can be identified on the societal and the individual level. Socio-structural regulations of life course selectivity and failure are viewed as constraining but also supporting individual life course management. Individual life course management is conceptualised in terms of the model of optimisation by selection and compensation, which is elaborated by applying the life span model of primary and secondary control developed by Heckhausen and Schulz. The integrated model conceptualises optimisation as a higher-order process regulating selection and compensation, so that the long-term potential for primary control is promoted. Primary and secondary control strategies are identified for both selection and compensation, thus yielding four types of life-management strategies. Finally, it is argued that selection and compensation are not adaptive in and of themselves and may become dysfunctional when impairing the long-term potential for primary control.

Developmental Regulation Across the Life Span: Toward a New Synthesis

How can individuals regulate their own development to live happy, healthy, and productive lives? Major theories of developmental regulation across the life span have been proposed (e.g., dual-process model of assimilation and accommodation; motivational theory of life-span development; model of selection, optimization, and compensation), but they have rarely been integrated. We provide an integration of key processes and predictions postulated by the 3 theories. Moreover, we present evidence from 2 age-heterogeneous, cross-sectional studies showing that the different processes of developmental regulation proposed by the different theories center around 3 key processes (i.e., goal engagement, goal disengagement, and metaregulation), which are positively associated with age and well-being. We conclude by proposing an agenda for future research.

Motivation and Action: Contents

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