K. David Hyrenbach

OCEANOGRAPHIC HABITAT OF AN ENDANGERED MEDITERRANEAN PROCELLARIIFORM: IMPLICATIONS FOR MARINE PROTECTED AREAS

Marine protected areas (MPAs) require ecologically meaningful designs capable of taking into account the particularities of the species under consideration, the dynamic nature of the marine environment, and the multiplicity of anthropogenic impacts. MPAs have been most often designated to protect benthic habitats and their biota. Increasingly, there is a need to account for highly mobile pelagic taxa, such as marine birds, mammals and turtles, and their oceanic habitats. For breeding seabirds foraging from a central place, particular attention should be paid to distant foraging grounds and movement corridors, which can often extend to hundreds of kilometers from breeding colonies. We assessed the habitat use by the most threatened Mediterranean seabird, the Balearic Shearwater, Puffinus mauretanicus, using vessel-based surveys during the chick-rearing period (May-June). We used a hierarchical modeling approach to identify those environmental variables that most accurately reflected the oceanographic habitat of this species by (1) delineating its foraging range using presence/ absence data and (2) identifying important foraging grounds where it concentrates in dense aggregations. The foraging range comprised the frontal systems along the eastern Iberian continental shelf waters (depth <200 m) and areas close to the breeding colonies in the Balearic Islands. Shearwaters aggregated in productive shelf areas with elevated chlorophyll a concentrations. Following the model of a core-buffer MPA, we envisioned those areas of dense aggregation (i.e., the area of influence of the Ebro River discharge and Cape La Nao regions) as the core regions deserving elevated protection and more stringent management. More diffuse protective measures would be applied within the larger buffer region, delineated by the foraging range of the species. Marine zoning measures can greatly benefit the conservation of the Balearic Shearwater and other far-ranging seabirds by extending protective measures beyond their breeding colonies during both the breeding and non-breeding seasons.

Habitat associations of floating debris and marine birds in the North East Pacific Ocean at coarse and meso spatial scales.

While many surface foraging seabirds ingest plastic, the spatial overlap of these far-ranging predators with debris aggregations at-sea is poorly understood. We surveyed concurrent distributions of marine birds and debris along a 4400 km cruise track within a debris accumulation area in the North East Pacific Ocean using line and strip transect methods. Analysis of debris and bird distributions revealed associations with oceanographic and weather variables at two spatial scales: daily surveys and hourly transects. Hourly bird abundance (densities; 0-9 birds km(-2)) was higher in lower wind and shallower water. Hourly debris abundance (densities; 0-15,222 pieces km(-2)) was higher in lower wind, higher sea-level atmospheric pressure and deeper water. These results suggest that debris and seabird abundance and community structure are influenced by similar environmental processes, but in opposing ways, with only three far-ranging seabird species (Black-footed Albatross, Cooks Petrel and Red-tailed Tropicbird) overlapping with high debris concentrations over meso-scales.

Designing criteria suites to identify discrete and networked sites of high value across manifestations of biodiversity

Suites of criteria specifying ecological, biological, social, economic, and governance properties enable the systematic identification of sites and networks of high biodiversity value, and can support balancing ecological and socioeconomic objectives of biodiversity conservation in terrestrial and marine spatial planning. We describe designs of suites of ecological, governance and socioeconomic criteria to comprehensively cover manifestations of biodiversity, from genotypes to biomes; compensate for taxonomic and spatial gaps in available datasets; balance biases resulting from conventionally-employed narrow criteria suites focusing on rare, endemic and threatened species; plan for climate change effects on biodiversity; and optimize the ecological and administrative networking of sites. Representativeness, replication, ecological connectivity, size, and refugia are identified as minimum ecological properties of site networks. Through inclusion of a criterion for phylogenetic distinctiveness, criteria suites identify sites important for maintaining evolutionary processes. Criteria for focal species are needed to overcome data gaps and address limitations in knowledge of factors responsible for maintaining ecosystem integrity.

International and cross‐cultural management in conservation of migratory species

We live in an age defined by global access to information. This has rapidly increased the scale of our ecological and social awareness (e.g., fair trade movement) and helped us to identify ecological problems and conservation solutions beyond the typical scale of traditional knowledge (i.e., the foraging range of a human group) or political jurisdictions (i.e., state or national boundaries). For the first time, we can comprehend and accumulate biological knowledge for species on the scale of ocean basins (Prince et al. 1992; Burger & Shaffer 2008). Coincident with this knowledge has been the awareness of the global human footprint and some of its consequences, such as, resource over-exploitation, habitat degradation, and species extinctions. Presently, however, we have a mis-match between the scales at which management frameworks operate (local, regional, national) and the scales at which ecosystems or their components exist (Crowder et al. 2006). Significant conservation actions must be made at appropriate scales (ocean basin, continental) for migratory species, particularly when these resources (e.g., blue fin tuna) are subject to extraction by entities with a variety of national and international allegiances (Block et al. 1995). Geopolitical boundaries arbitrarily delineate sub-populations and hinder effective management and understanding of these species. This is particularly true for far-ranging or migratory species, where foraging, moulting, or nesting ranges can be widely dispersed. Knowledge about habitat connectivity among neotropical migratory songbirds and butterflies that breed in nearctic (North America) and winter in the neotropics (Central and South America) has led to the recognition of flyways or migratory corridors and the development of international conservation consortiums. In 1990, the “Partners in Flight/Companeros en Vuelo/Partenaires d’Envo”, an international conservation programme, was formed in response to growing knowledge of wintering area habitat loss and concerns about population declines. Such international programmes can address conservation issues at the appropriate (and in some cases, global) ecological scale and can be used as models for species not covered by such conservation initiatives. The Kia Mau te Tītī mo Ake Tōnu Atu (Keep the Tītī Forever) project exemplifies a crosscultural collaboration of scientists and Māori community members to inform co-management of an important seabird resource (Moller et al. 2009a,b). Building upon this established partnership, we initiated the Rakiura Tītī Islands Restoration Project, an international collaboration between a United States non-profit conservation organisation, University of Otago scientists, and Rakiura Māori, with support from New Zealand conservation managers. Our shared resource, taonga tītī (the treasured sooty shearwater, Puffinus griseus), brought us together and

Validation of ATR FT-IR to identify polymers of plastic marine debris, including those ingested by marine organisms

Polymer identification of plastic marine debris can help identify its sources, degradation, and fate. We optimized and validated a fast, simple, and accessible technique, attenuated total reflectance Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR FT-IR), to identify polymers contained in plastic ingested by sea turtles. Spectra of consumer good items with known resin identification codes #1-6 and several #7 plastics were compared to standard and raw manufactured polymers. High temperature size exclusion chromatography measurements confirmed ATR FT-IR could differentiate these polymers. High-density (HDPE) and low-density polyethylene (LDPE) discrimination is challenging but a clear step-by-step guide is provided that identified 78% of ingested PE samples. The optimal cleaning methods consisted of wiping ingested pieces with water or cutting. Of 828 ingested plastics pieces from 50 Pacific sea turtles, 96% were identified by ATR FT-IR as HDPE, LDPE, unknown PE, polypropylene (PP), PE and PP mixtures, polystyrene, polyvinyl chloride, and nylon.

Community-wide patterns of plastic ingestion in seabirds breeding at French Frigate Shoals, Northwestern Hawaiian Islands

Between 2006 and 2013, we salvaged and necropsied 362 seabird specimens from Tern Island, French Frigate Shoals, Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. Plastic ingestion occurred in 11 of the 16 species sampled (68.75%), representing four orders, seven families, and five foraging guilds: four plunge-divers, two albatrosses, two nocturnal-foraging petrels, two tuna-birds, and one frigatebird. Moreover, we documented the first instance of ingestion in a previously unstudied species: the Brown Booby. Plastic prevalence (percent occurrence) ranged from 0% to 100%, with no significant differences across foraging guilds. However, occurrence was significantly higher in chicks versus adult conspecifics in the Black-footed Albatross, one of the three species where multiple age classes were sampled. While seabirds ingested a variety of plastic (foam, line, sheets), fragments were the most common and numerous type. In albatrosses and storm-petrels, the plastic occurrence in the two stomach chambers (the proventriculus and the ventriculus) was not significantly different.

Pelagic Predators, Prey and Processes (P4): A Multi-species Approach to the Conservation of Offshore Organisms and Habitats in the California Current System

Pelagic Predators, Prey and Processes” (P4) is an inter-disciplinary initiative developed to address the conservation of marine top predators along the West Coast of North America. P4 integrates research and policy components lead by PRBO Conservation Science (formerly Point Reyes Bird Observatory), Duke University Marine Laboratory and Canadian Wildlife Service, in conjunction with numerous partners that include funding and resource management agencies, academia, and researchers. Herein, we provide an overview of the P4 conservation initiative background, objectives, and initial products. We include a brief summary of data collected on collaborative research cruises and preliminary analyses of seabird, cetacean, and marine turtle ocean habitat selection. Data reveal that continental shelfbreak and slope areas in the California Current System (CCS) support rich and diverse top predator assemblages. Moreover, results suggest that bathymetry may be useful in selecting appropriate marine habitats for Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) 1 designation to protect highly mobile marine vertebrates. We also summarize the highlights from a workshop held in January 2002 to explore the “scientific basis for offshore / pelagic marine reserves” 2 and report on the resulting establishment of the “Pelagic Working Group” (PWG). The PWG concluded that persistent ocean productivity patterns and pelagic species distributions could be readily identified in the 1 Marine Protected Area (MPA) is a broad term referring to a site that has been afforded some level of protection (e.g. limiting oil and gas exploration) to preserve biological, geophysical or cultural resources (U.S. Executive Order 13158). However, the majority of MPAs allow recreational and commercial fishing. 2 Marine Reserves (MRVs) are specifically designed to protect biological resources by excluding extractive activities such as fishing, and in some cases, deleterious recreational activities. CCS. In principle, MPAs could be used to protect some of these offshore species and habitats from certain anthropogenic impacts.

Trophic signatures of seabirds suggest shifts in oceanic ecosystems

A 125-year record of seabird trophic status shows declines reflecting squid boom and improves on prior index deficiencies. Pelagic ecosystems are dynamic ocean regions whose immense natural capital is affected by climate change, pollution, and commercial fisheries. Trophic level–based indicators derived from fishery catch data may reveal the food web status of these systems, but the utility of these metrics has been debated because of targeting bias in fisheries catch. We analyze a unique, fishery-independent data set of North Pacific seabird tissues to inform ecosystem trends over 13 decades (1890s to 2010s). Trophic position declined broadly in five of eight species sampled, indicating a long-term shift from higher–trophic level to lower–trophic level prey. No species increased their trophic position. Given species prey preferences, Bayesian diet reconstructions suggest a shift from fishes to squids, a result consistent with both catch reports and ecosystem models. Machine learning models further reveal that trophic position trends have a complex set of drivers including climate, commercial fisheries, and ecomorphology. Our results show that multiple species of fish-consuming seabirds may track the complex changes occurring in marine ecosystems.

Plastic ingestion by Tristram's Storm-petrel ( Oceanodroma tristrami ) chicks from French frigate shoals, Northwestern Hawaiian Islands

This study provides the first quantification of plastic ingestion in the Tristrams Storm-petrel (Oceanodroma tristrami) in over 20 years. We found 100% plastic incidence in 57 chicks collected opportunistically over four breeding seasons (2007, 2010, 2011, 2012), with the mass of ingested plastic per individual ranging from 0.1 to 2.8 g (≤3.3% adult mass). While plastic occurred in every bird we examined, the proventriculus contained significantly more plastic, more fragments, and larger fragments than the gizzard. Most of the ingested plastic (97.5% by mass) consisted of fragments, ranging in length from 0.4 to 11.6 mm and ranging in surface area from 0.07 to 45.21 mm2. While fragments were ubiquitous, occurring in every proventriculus and gizzard we analyzed, Tristrams Storm-petrels also ingested foam, line and sheets. Digital analysis of 1425 ingested plastic fragments documented a wide range of colors, involving shades of white, yellow, orange, red, blue, green, and black.

Polymer Identification of Plastic Debris Ingested by Pelagic-phase Sea Turtles in the Central Pacific

Pelagic Pacific sea turtles eat relatively large quantities of plastic (median 5 g in gut). Using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, we identified the polymers ingested by 37 olive ridley, 9 green, and 4 loggerhead turtles caught as bycatch in Hawaii- and American Samoa-based longline fisheries. Unidentifiable samples were analyzed using high-temperature size exclusion chromatography with multiple detectors and/or X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. Regardless of species differences in dive depths and foraging strategies, ingested plastics were primarily low-density, floating polymers (51% low-density polyethylene (LDPE), 26% polypropylene (PP), 10% unknown polyethylene (PE), and 5% high-density PE collectively). Albeit not statistically significant, deeper diving and deeper captured olive ridley turtles ate proportionally more plastics expected to sink (3.9%) than intermediate-diving green (1.2%) and shallow-diving loggerhead (0.3%) turtles. Spatial, but no sex, size, year, or hook depth differences were observed in polymer composition. LDPE and PP, some of the most produced and least recycled polymers worldwide, account for the largest percentage of plastic eaten by sea turtles in this region. These novel data inform managers about the threat of plastic ingestion to sea turtles and may motivate development of more environmentally friendly practices for plastic production, use, and waste management.