K. G. Saxena

Analysis and resolution of protected area–people conflicts in Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve, India

Conflicts between local people and protected area managers are a common problem in developing countries, but in many cases there has been little attempt to comprehensively characterize the underlying problems. Resource uses, management practices, economy and peoples perceptions of problems and likely solutions were analysed in two villages near and two villages away from the core zone of Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve in the Indian Himalaya. Agriculture, although practised on less than 1% of the area, was the primary occupation of local people. Six annual crops of a total of 22 and all four horticultural crops on private farms were damaged by wildlife, but Reserve management provided compensation only for livestock killing by wildlife and compensation amounted to only 4–10% of the total assessed monetary value of killed livestock. A variety of wild plant products were used locally but 27 were marketed by more than 50% of surveyed families; income from wild products was substantially lower than that from crops and livestock. A sociocultural change from a subsistence to a market economy, together with changes in traditional land/resource rights and institutions, has led to a number of changes in land-use and management practices. The livestock population has declined, agricultural area has remained the same and people have started cultivating medicinal species in the last 20 years. These changes seem complementary to the goal of conservation. However, changes such as abandonment of some traditional food crops and stress on cash crops lacking fodder value, requiring substantial manure inputs derived from forest litter and livestock excreta, and causing severe soil erosion, seem to counter the goal of environmental conservation. Some government-managed Reserve Forest sites were similar to the Community Forests in terms of species richness, basal area and soil physico-chemical properties. Two Reserve Forest sites showed basal areas of 160.5–191.5 m 2 /ha, exceeding the highest values reported so far from the region. The formal institutional framework of resource management seems to be not as effective as the traditional informal system. The Reserve Management Plan lays more emphasis on legal protection than on the sustainable livelihood of local communities and has led to conflicts between local people and reserve managers. Plantation of fodder and medicinal species in degraded forest lands, suppression of economic exploitation of local people in the market, enhancement of local knowledge of the economic potential of biodiversity, incentives for cultivation of crops with comparative advantages and lesser risks of damage by wildlife, and rejuvenation of the traditional involvement of the whole village community in decison-making, could be the options for resolving conflicts between people and protected areas in this case.

Conservation policy-people conflicts: a case study from Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve (a World Heritage Site), India.

Perceptions of local people towards conservation policy and related management interventions, nature and magnitude of policy–people conflicts and, possible options for conflict resolution were analysed in the Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve, a World Heritage Site in Indian Himalaya. Peoples perceptions were discerned through participatory discussions covering 419 households distributed in 10 villages in the buffer zone. Traditional uncodified rights of local people were substantially reduced through policy interventions set in since 1860s. Local people as well as tourists were excluded from the core zone covering an area of 625 km2 since 1982. Deterioration of rural economy due to damage to crop and livestock by wildlife and, termination of opportunities of income from wild medicinal plant resources and tourism in the core zone were the key negative impacts of conservation policy felt by more than 90% of respondents. Mean annual economic loss per household was estimated as Rs 1285, Rs 1195 and Rs 156 due to damage caused by wildlife to food crops, fruit trees and beehives, respectively, Rs 1587 due to ban on collection of wild medicinal plants for marketing and Rs 7904 due to ban on tourism in the core zone. Reserve authority granted compensation of livestock killed by wildlife but it was hardly 5% of the market value of killed livestock as assessed by the people. People did not appreciate much the present benefits from the reserve management in the form of wages for carrying out afforestation work, partial compensation of livestock depredation and availability of solar power devices, wool, and spinning devices. Approximately 95% respondents identified empowerment of local people in respect of realising income from timber from dead/diseased trees in community forests, income from medicinal plants in buffer zone and opening of core zone for tourism as potential development options. Improvement in rural economy, the prime concern of local people, has not received as much attention as legal enforcement of protection by the reserve management. There is a need for developing policies and management actions that serve the economic interests of local people together with enhancement of environmental conservation goal.

Wild leafy vegetables: A study of their subsistence dietetic support to the inhabitants of Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve, India

Consumption of greens is a major source of vitamins and micro-nutrients for people using only vegetarian diets rich in carbohydrates. In remote rural settlements where vegetable cultivation is not practiced and market supplies are not organized, local inhabitants depend on indigenous vegetables, both cultivated in kitchen gardens and wild, for enriching the diversity of food. Knowledge of such foods is part of traditional knowledge which is largely transmitted through participation of individuals of households. A total of 123 households in six villages of Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve buffer zone was surveyed using a schedule to assess the knowledge, availability and consumption pattern of wild leafy vegetables. Quantity estimations were done using regular visits with informants from 30 sample households of the six study villages during the collections. Monetization was used to see the value of wild leafy vegetables harvested during a year. The diversity of wild leafy vegetables being use by the local inhabitants is 21 species belonging to 14 genera and 11 families. This is far less than that being reported to be used by the communities from Western Ghats in India and some parts of Africa. Irrespective of social or economic status all households in the study villages had the knowledge and used wild leafy vegetables. The number of households reported to consume these wild leafy vegetables is greater than the number of households reporting to harvest them for all species except for Diplazium esculentum and Phytolacca acinosa. The availability and use period varied for the species are listed by the users. The study indicated that the knowledge is eroding due to changing social values and non participation of younger generation in collection and processing of such wild leafy vegetables.

Traditional crop diversity for sustainable development of Central Himalayan agroecosystems

SUMMARY A rich diversity of traditional crops occurs generally in the Himalaya and more particularly in Central Himalaya. Over forty species of food grains are grown in traditional agroecosystems of Central Himalaya, which have been managed by the local farming communities since time immemorial. These traditional crop varieties have evolved over centuries and are well adapted to the particular area. A number of edaphic, topographic and climatic factors associated with different selection pressures over centuries of cultivation resulted in immense variations in the crop species. The grain and by-product yield of the majority of the traditional crops cultivated across an altitudinal gradient were worked out and compared with common food crops (paddy, wheat, mustard) at two points in time (1970-74, 1990–94) and it was found that almost all the traditional crops had slightly higher yields during 1970–74 than between 1990–94. However, common food crops grown during the Kharif season had higher yields during 19...

Growth and ecological impacts of traditional agroforestry tree species in Central Himalaya, India

A number of multipurpose tree species are conserved as scattered trees in settled farms on terraced slopes by the traditional farmers in Central Himalaya, India. Knowledge on growth rates and ecological impacts of these tree species is limited. Ten locally valued multipurpose tree species, viz., Albizzia lebbek, Alnus nepalensis, Boehmeria rugulosa, Celtis australis, Dalbergia sissoo, Ficus glomerata, Grewia optiva, Prunus cerasoides, Pyrus pashia and Sapium sebiferum, were established as mixed plantations at a degraded community forest land site and an abandoned agricultural land site in a village at 1200 m altitude in District Chamoli, India. At the abandoned agricultural land site, annual food crops were grown, along with planted trees, providing supplemental irrigation and organic manure following traditional farming practices. Survival, height, stem circumference, crown depth and width, number of branches, above-ground biomass and soil physico-chemical characteristics were monitored up to five years of plantation growth. Above-ground tree biomass accumulation at the abandoned agricultural land site was 3.9 t ha−1 yr−1 compared with 1.1 t ha−1 yr−1at the degraded forest land site. B. rugulosa, C. australis, F. glomerata, G. optiva, P. cerasoides and S. sebiferum showed more prominent differences in growth at the two sites compared with A. lebbek, A. nepalensis, D. sissoo and P. pashia. A. nepalensis and D. sissoo showed best growth performance at both the sites. A significant improvement in soil physico-chemical characteristics was observed after five years at both of the sites. Carbon sequestration in soil was higher than that in bole biomass.

Leaf litter decomposition and nutrient release patterns of six multipurpose tree species of central Himalaya, India

Abstract Chemical characteristics and decomposition patterns of six multipurpose tree species, viz., Alnus nepalensis , Albizzia lebbek , Boehmeria rugulosa , Dalbergia sissoo , Ficus glomerata and F. roxburghii were analysed in a mixed plantation established on an abandoned agricultural land site in a village at 1200 m altitude in Central Himalaya, India. Differences in chemical quality of litter species were most marked in polyphenol and N concentrations. A. lebbek , A. nepalensis and D. sissoo showed higher N (2.2–2.6%) but lower polyphenol concentrations (3.2–4.7%) than B. rugulosa , F. glomerata and F. roxburghii (0.96–1.97% N and 5.68–11.64% polyphenol). Significant effects of species, incubation time and species×incubation time interaction on monthly mass, N, P and K release rates were observed. A linear combination of rainfall and temperature explained the variation in monthly mass loss better than rainfall and temperature independently. Percentage mass remaining after 1 year of incubation varied from 30 to 50, N remaining from 40 to 86, P remaining from 33 to 56 and K remaining from 1 to 3. Annual decomposition constants of mass and N were positively correlated with C and N concentrations and negatively correlated with C/N, lignin/N, polyphenol/N and lignin+polyphenol/N ratios of fresh litter. As all the species studied showed the highest rates of N and P release during the rainy season, rainy season crops are not likely to be as much nutrient stressed as winter season crops if leaf litter of these species is assumed to be the sole source of nutrients to crops in tree-crop mixed agroforestry. A. lebbek , A. nepalensis , D. sissoo and F. glomerata seem to be more appropriate for rapid recovery in degraded lands as their litter decomposed faster than B. rugulosa and F. roxburghii . A diverse multipurpose tree community provides not only diverse products but may also render stable nutrient cycling.

Agroforestry systems in the rural landscape : a case study in Garhwal Himalaya, India

A mid altitude (700–1200 m amsl.) village in Garhwal Himalaya was analysed in terms of energy and economic efficiency of different land use-land cover types constituting the landscape. Simultaneous agroforestry, sequential agroforestry, home garden and community forests accounted for 27.47%, 27.47%, 1.1% and 43.96% of the total geographical area of the village. Simultaneous agroforestry is the traditional land use involving substantial input of manure derived from forest litter and animal excreta and was practised on terraced slopes in private ownership. Tree cover in this system was represented by nine species with total average density of 390 trees ha−1, Grewia optiva and Boehmeria rugulosa being the most dominant. Sequential agroforestry system involving slash-burn practice and cultivation on unterraced slopes without tillage and manuring was an illicit land use on community lands where forestry land use is desirable as per the government policy. Per ha annual energy input in simultaneous agroforestry system was 305267 MJ compared to 279 MJ in sequential agroforestry and 27047 MJ in home garden. In monetary terms, highest per ha annual output was obtained from simultaneous agroforestry (Rs 25370, Rs 35 = US

Role of earthworms in soil fertility maintenance through the production of biogenic structures.

1) followed by home garden (Rs 18200) and sequential agroforestry (Rs 9426). Local food, fodder and fuelwood production was in excess of the local consumption. While most of the surplus food was stored, surplus fodder and fuelwood were sold for cash. Production in simultaneous agroforestry system in private lands was sustained with substantial biomass and nutrient inputs from the community and government forests. Land use-land cover changes in the region are driven by the interaction of ecological, policy and human factors. It is concluded that present policy of treating forests and agriculture as closed and independent ecological or production systems needs to be replaced by an integrated land use policy.

Promoting ecotourism in the buffer zone areas of Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve: An option to resolve people—policy conflict

The soil biota benefits soil productivity and contributes to the sustainable function of all ecosystems. The cycling of nutrients is a critical function that is essential to life on earth. Earthworms (EWs) are a major component of soil fauna communities in most ecosystems and comprise a large proportion of macrofauna biomass. Their activity is beneficial because it can enhance soil nutrient cycling through the rapid incorporation of detritus into mineral soils. In addition to this mixing effect, mucus production associated with water excretion in earthworm guts also enhances the activity of other beneficial soil microorganisms. This is followed by the production of organic matter. So, in the short term, a more significant effect is the concentration of large quantities of nutrients (N, P, K, and Ca) that are easily assimilable by plants in fresh cast depositions. In addition, earthworms seem to accelerate the mineralization as well as the turnover of soil organic matter. Earthworms are known also to increase nitrogen mineralization, through direct and indirect effects on the microbial community. The increased transfer of organic C and N into soil aggregates indicates the potential for earthworms to facilitate soil organic matter stabilization and accumulation in agricultural systems, and that their influence depends greatly on differences in land management practices. This paper summarises information on published data on the described subjects.

Minor forest products' management: problems and prospects in remote high altitude villages of Central Himalaya

The fascination for mountains, breathtaking natural beauty, rich cultural diversity, socioeconomic traditions, history and lifestyles attract mountaineers, trekkers, naturalists ascetics, explorers and cultural tourists from all over the world to the Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve (NDBR) and adjoining areas. Expedition/mountaineering and tourism, as a livelihood option for the people living in the buffer zone areas of NDBR, was important, next to animal husbandry and agriculture. Until 1960, Bhotiya people in the buffer zone of NDBR and adjoining areas had a good trade relationship with Tibet. Closure of Indo-Tibetan trade due to the Indo-China war of 1962, followed by imposition of conservation policies due to creation of Nanda Devi National Park in 1982 and Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve in 1988, caused all consumptive uses and expedition/ mountaineering to be banned in the core zone, which has not only affected the local economy to a large extent but also created conflict between local people and reserve authorities. The ban on tourism is the most severe concern of the local people as it provided significant income. Of the three complementary functions of a biosphere reserve, viz. conservation, development and logistic support (research and education), the management is biased towards achieving conservation by legal protection which may not be sustainable in the long term. People have started raising a voice against the ban on expedition/tourism in the core zone but have not yet damaged the core zone area. This paper deals with the history of expeditions and the impact on the local economy, identification of model ecotrekking/expedition routes and potential sites, and designing appropriate strategies/action plans for sustainable ecotourism. This will not only help to resolve the local people-policy conflicts and improve the local economy but will also help to achieve the biodiversity conservation goal.