K. Maja Krakowiak

How Violent Video Games Communicate Violence: A Literature Review and Content Analysis of Moral Disengagement Factors

Mechanisms of moral disengagement in violent video game play have recently received considerable attention among communication scholars. To date, however, no study has analyzed the prevalence of moral disengagement factors in violent video games. To fill this research gap, the present approach includes both a systematic literature review and a content analysis of moral disengagement cues embedded in the narratives and actual game play of 17 top-ranked first-person shooters (PC). Findings suggest that moral disengagement factors are frequently embedded in first-person shooters, but their prevalence varies considerably. Most violent video games include justifications of the portrayed violence, a distorted portrayal of consequences, and dehumanization of opponents. Implications of the findings for research on violent games are discussed.

Exploring viewers’ responses to nine reality TV subgenres.

Reality TV is a genre that places nonactors in dramatic situations with unpredictable outcomes. The influx of reality TV dominating network and cable programming has been highly reflective in its expansion of formats, evident from the variety of narrative themes embedded in reality-based shows. Findings from this exploratory study (N = 274) reveal significant differences in the way college students affectively, cognitively, and behaviorally engage with reality TV. Specifically, identification, interactivity, enjoyment, perceived realism, and perceived competition across 9 reality TV subgenres: dating/romance, makeover/lifestyle, hidden camera, talent, game show, docusoap, sitcom, law enforcement, and court significantly differed. Data provide strong support that programs commonly defined as reality-based offer qualitatively distinct affective, cognitive, and behavioral experiences and gratifications for viewers.

Inspirational Reality TV: The Prosocial Effects of Lifestyle Transforming Reality Programs on Elevation and Altruism

In light of recent theories of meaningful media that suggest a host of psychological benefits, the present study uniquely extends the boundaries of the effects of reality TV from simply offering pleasure, diversion, and amusement to its viewers to also providing deep insight and meaning. In particular, a between-subjects experiment (N = 143) examined differences in affective, cognitive, and motivational responses to lifestyle transforming versus game based reality programs. Findings indicate that lifestyle transforming reality TV produced stronger feelings of elevation and perceptions of the program as moving and thought-provoking than game reality TV, which in turn increased motivations for altruism. Avenues for future research and theoretical implications of meaningful and inspiring reality TV for positive psychology are discussed.

Effects of Hedonic and Eudaimonic Motivations on Film Enjoyment Through Moral Disengagement

In light of literature documenting differences in viewers’ entertainment preferences, this study (N = 168) examined how motivations for film consumption based on pleasure (hedonism) and meaning (eudaimonia) are associated with moral disengagement and enjoyment of content featuring a morally ambiguous character. Findings indicate that whereas hedonic motivation positively influenced moral disengagement, eudaimonic motivation had the reverse effect. Furthermore, eudaimonic motivation had a direct positive influence on enjoyment, and the relationship between hedonic motivation and enjoyment was mediated by moral disengagement. Implications for the role of morality as it relates to individual preferences for media consumption and enjoyment are discussed.

Some Like It Morally Ambiguous: The Effects of Individual Differences on the Enjoyment of Different Character Types

Responses to morally ambiguous characters vary greatly. The same character may be loved by some individuals and hated by others. The present study (N = 313) empirically tested how two individual difference factors, ambiguity tolerance (AT) and need for cognition (NFC), affected responses to purely good, purely bad, and morally ambiguous character types. Findings reveal that both AT and NFC affected enjoyment of content featuring different character types. Specifically, AT predicted both affective and cognitive enjoyment of good and ambiguous characters, and NFC predicted cognitive enjoyment of these characters.

Are Good Characters Better for Us? The Effect of Morality Salience on Entertainment Selection and Recovery Outcomes

Two experiments examined whether one’s moral self-perception affects the selection of content (Study 1) and whether exposure to different character types results in any recovery benefits (Study 2). Study 1 found that individuals were more likely to select films featuring good characters and morally ambiguous characters than films featuring bad characters regardless of their moral self-perceptions. Study 2 found that individuals whose vices were made salient relaxed and psychologically detached more after reading stories featuring good characters and MACs than after reading a bad character story, whereas those whose virtues were made salient experienced an equal level of recovery benefits regardless of character type. Findings thus indicate that morality salience does not affect selection of content featuring different character types, but it does affect the recovery outcomes one experiences after narrative exposure.