K. Richard Young

Precision Teaching: An Introduction

Eliza is a fourth-grade student at the Valley Dale School. For a few minutes during her various academic periods each day, Eliza works with a classmate on exercises in reading, mathematics, and spelling. For the first few minutes, she reads aloud, answers arithmetic problems, and spells words dictated to her as her peer tutor times her work. After each exercise, the two students look at Elizas work, correct it, count the number of correct and incorrect responses, and enter the scores into a computer. Then they practice the academic skills together. A few minutes later, Eliza and her classmate exchange roles; Eliza now becomes the tutor and her classmate the learner. Each exercise the students complete is designed to help them develop fluency, or automaticity, in the performance of important academic skills. They use the computer to analyze their daily performance and suggest practice, instructional, and motivational strategies that should help them perform fluently. Fluent performance is accurate as well as relatively effortless. Eliza and her classmates have found that developing fluency helps them learn quickly and retain their learning much longer. The exercises they complete provide them with many opportunities to respond, be corrected, and help one another. They all have learned a great deal during this year of school. Eliza has a severe language disorder, is bilingual, and was seriously behind her expected grade level at the beginning of the year. Now, at the end of the year, Eliza is performing near

Validation of the Systematic Screening for Behavior Disorders in Middle and Junior High School

The Systematic Screening for Behavior Disorders (SSBD), a multistage screening system designed to identify elementary school—age children at risk for emotional and behavioral disorders, was evaluated for use with middle and junior high school students. During SSBD Stage 1, teachers identified 123 students in grades 6 through 9 with characteristics of internalizing and externalizing disorders. Teachers then completed SSBD Stage 2 behavior rating scales, the Teacher Report Form, and the Social Skill Rating System on 119 of these students identified as at-risk during Stage 1. Office discipline referrals and cumulative grade point averages for at-risk students were compared to those of students not designated by teachers. SSBD Stage 2 scores were compared with scores from the Teacher Report Form and Social Skill Rating System. Internal consistency and interrater reliability of the SSBD were also examined. Results provide evidence for the reliability and validity of SSBD ratings of early adolescent students.

The Effects of School-Wide Positive Behavior Support on Middle School Climate and Student Outcomes.

Abstract This study investigated the effects of school-wide positive behavior support (SWPBS) on middle school climate and student outcomes. Data consisted of more than 300 teacher responses and 10,000 student responses in two middle schools in the western United States. This study used a quasi-experimental (non-equivalent two-group, pretest-posttest) design. One school implemented a SWPBS intervention over a period of four years, while the other served as a control. The SWPBS intervention included school-wide teaching of social skills, praise notes from teachers to students, posting of school rules, proactive screening for students at risk for emotional and behavioral disorders, and referrals of at-risk students for targeted interventions. The treatment school showed statistically significant improvements in teacher ratings of school climate, while the control school tended to stay the same or worsen. Statistically significant decreases were also evident in students’ tardiness, unexcused absences, and office discipline referrals when compared to the control school. Implications and limitations of this study are addressed.

Behavioral Intervention Planning: Increasing Appropriate Behavior of a Socially Withdrawn Student.

This study examined the effects of an assessment-based intervention plan on the appropriate classroom behavior of a socially withdrawn, Hispanic, learning disabled, third grade student. The study focused on (1) the effects of peer mediation as part of a behavioral intervention package of empirically validated components, (2) the effects of aligning assessment data to the BIP, and (3) the social validity of the assessment and intervention process. Three major strategies linked directly to assessment outcomes were worked into a behavioral intervention plan for the socially withdrawn child in the study: social skill development, self-management including positive reinforcement, and peer mediation. A single subject ABAB withdrawal design was used to evaluate the intervention. The socially withdrawn student showed immediate marked improvement in socially appropriate classroom behavior and completion of his academic work. Treatment gains maintained over time as reinforcement was thinned out. Social validity evaluation included social comparison (i.e., normative sample) and subjective evaluation by the teacher, student and peer through questionnaire data, with special consideration given to the degree of usability.

Schoolwide Screening and Programs of Positive Behavior Support: Informing Universal Interventions

Researchers have suggested that screening, identification, and treatment are important components of comprehensive systems of positive behavior support. The authors highlight a procedure for using multiple data sources to develop strategies at the universal intervention level. Examples of schoolwide assessments include interviews, observations, focus groups, archival data, systematic screening for behavior disorders, and office disciplinary referrals. A descriptive summary of data collected in an elementary school illustrates an interpretive process that school teams could use before selecting universal interventions. A comparison of subjective and objective data collection methods suggests that varied data sources have differing implications for intervention planning. The authors underscore the benefits of integrating data before selecting universal interventions and include implications for research and practice.

Using Peer Praise Notes to Increase the Social Involvement of Withdrawn Adolescents.

Social competence is crucial to school success, including academic achievement (Coie & Krehbiel, 1984; Gresham, Sugai, & Horner, 2001; Kerr & Nelson, 2006; Walker, Ramsey, & Gresham, 2004). Defined as the ability to interact successfully with peers and significant adults, social competence is associated with peer acceptance, positive peer relationships, teacher acceptance, and academic success (Walker et al.). Social competence becomes particularly critical for students with cognitive, academic, or emotional and behavioral deficits (Gresham & MacMillan, 1997). The Individuals With Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004 (IDEA) criteria indicate that students with emotional and/or behavioral disorders (EBD) often have difficulty forming and maintaining relationships with peers and teachers. Adolescents with EBD display lower levels of social competence and higher levels of problem behavior than students with learning disabilities (Lane, Carter, Pierson, & Glaeser, 2006). Middle and junior high school students with EBD have also been rated by their teachers as having higher levels of social maladjustment and lower levels of overall competence than students without EBD (Cullinan & Sabornie, 2004). In addition, students with EBD may misinterpret social situations and have difficulty with interpersonal problem-solving skills (Lane, Wehby, & Barton-Arwood, 2005), often resulting in peer rejection (Murray & Greenberg, 2006) further heightening

Implementing Strong Kids School-Wide to Reduce Internalizing Behaviors and Increase Prosocial Behaviors

Instruction and training in social and emotional learning (SEL) is an important component in addressing the emotional and behavioral needs of students. This study is the first to examine whether Strong Kids, an SEL program, delivered school-wide in all classrooms, could result in decreased internalizing behaviors and increased prosocial behaviors for both at-risk and general education students. This study also evaluated whether teachers could implement Strong Kids as designed and whether they viewed it as socially valid. A non-equivalent control group design was used. The treatment school consisted of 348 student participants and 17 teacher participants in grades K–6. The control school consisted of 266 student participants and 11 teacher participants in grades K–6. Pretest and posttest teacher ratings revealed significant decreases in students’ internalizing behaviors at the treatment school, while these behaviors increased at the control school. Students at risk for emotional and behavioral disorders improved significantly more than those not at risk on ratings of internalizing symptoms and prosocial behaviors, even when the intervention was delivered school-wide in all classrooms. Teachers were able to implement Strong Kids with a high level of fidelity and they held moderately favorable views of the program.

Teaching Organizational Skills to Promote Academic Achievement in Behaviorally Challenged Students

Organizational difficulties are major obstacles for many students with learning and behavior problems (Minskoff & Allsopp, 2003). These students often neglect to separate notebooks into various subject areas, forget to bring necessary items to class, and stuff assignments randomly into their book bags and pockets. Students’ disorganization, including their inability to keep track of assignments and turn them in on time, can contribute to low grades and academic failure, particularly beginning in secondary school when teacher expectations are greater and supervision of students tends to be more limited than during the elementary years. Students with learning challenges may not acquire essential skills unless they are provided with systematic direct instruction (Minskoff & Allsopp, 2003); youth who fail to apply organizational skills may not have had the opportunity to acquire them through an explicit instructional approach (Bos & Vaughn, 2006). This oversight places struggling students at increased risk for unsatisfactory or failing grades and tends to heighten misperceptions of their academic performance in relation to that of their more successful peers (Young, West, Smith & Morgan, 1991).

Using Precision Teaching to Teach Minimum Competency Test Skills.

State education agencies can legally require students with handicapping conditions to pass minimum competency tests (MCTs) before receiving a high school diploma. However, the results of several studies indicate that a large number of students with handicapping conditions have failed to pass these tests (Byrnes, 1987; Linn, 1984; McKinney, 1980). If students with handicapping conditions do not succeed within the present system, then alternative methods and materials of instruction must be found. This article describes a project that investigated an alternative to traditional teaching methods using precision teaching techniques (White, 1986), including an instructional strategy used with flashcards referred to as SAFMEDS (an acronym for Say All Facts a Minute Each Day Shuffled) (Eshleman, 1985).

Effects of a Tier 3 Self-Management Intervention Implemented with and without Treatment Integrity

This study investigated the effects of a Tier 3 peer-matching self-management intervention on two elementary school students who had previously been less responsive to Tier 1 and Tier 2 interventions. The Tier 3 self-management intervention, which was implemented in the general education classrooms, included daily electronic communication between the teachers and the children’s parents. Results indicated that this intervention effectively reduced disruptive behaviors and increased total engagement when implemented with integrity; without integrity results were variable.