K. Staniszewski

Optical imaging of tissue mitochondrial redox state in intact rat lungs in two models of pulmonary oxidative stress

Ventilation with enhanced fractions of O(2) (hyperoxia) is a common and necessary treatment for hypoxemia in patients with lung failure, but prolonged exposure to hyperoxia causes lung injury. Ischemia-reperfusion (IR) injury of lung tissue is common in lung transplant or crush injury to the chest. These conditions are associated with apoptosis and decreased survival of lung tissue. The objective of this work is to use cryoimaging to evaluate the effect of exposure to hyperoxia and IR injury on lung tissue mitochondrial redox state in rats. The autofluorescent mitochondrial metabolic coenzymes nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH) and flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) are electron carriers in ATP generation. These intrinsic fluorophores were imaged for rat lungs using low-temperature fluorescence imaging (cryoimaging). Perfused lungs from four groups of rats were studied: normoxia (control), control perfused with an mitochondrial complex IV inhibitor (potassium cyanide, KCN), rats exposed to hyperoxia (85% O(2)) for seven days, and from rats subjected to lung IR in vivo 24 hours prior to study. Each lung was sectioned sequentially in the transverse direction, and the images were used to reconstruct a three-dimensional (3-D) rendering. In KCN perfused lungs the respiratory chain was more reduced, whereas hyperoxic and IR lung tissue have a more oxidized respiratory chain than control lung tissue, consistent with previously measured mitochondrial dysfunction in both hyperoxic and IR lungs.

Mitochondrial redox studies of oxidative stress in kidneys from diabetic mice

Chronic hyperglycemia during diabetes leads to increased production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and increased oxidative stress (OS). Here we investigated whether changes in the metabolic state can be used as a marker of OS progression in kidneys. We examined redox states of kidneys from diabetic mice, Akita/+ and Akita/+;TSP1–/– mice (Akita mice lacking thrombospondin-1, TSP1) with increasing duration of diabetes. OS as measured by mitochondrial redox ratio (NADH/FAD) was detectable shortly after the onset of diabetes and further increased with the duration of diabetes. Thus, cryo fluorescence redox imaging was used as a quantitative marker of OS progression in kidneys from diabetic mice and demonstrated that alterations in the oxidative state of kidneys occur during the early stages of diabetes.

Optical Imaging of Lipopolysaccharide-induced Oxidative Stress in Acute Lung Injury from Hyperoxia and Sepsis

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) have been implicated in the pathogenesis of many acute and chronic pulmonary disorders such as acute lung injury (ALI) in adults and bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD) in premature infants. Bacterial infection and oxygen toxicity, which result in pulmonary vascular endothelial injury, contribute to impaired vascular growth and alveolar simplification seen in the lungs of premature infants with BPD. Hyperoxia induces ALI, reduces cell proliferation, causes DNA damage and promotes cell death by causing mitochondrial dysfunction. The objective of this study was to use an optical imaging technique to evaluate the variations in fluorescence intensities of the auto-fluorescent mitochondrial metabolic coenzymes, NADH and FAD in four different groups of rats. The ratio of these fluorescence signals (NADH/FAD), referred to as NADH redox ratio (NADH RR) has been used as an indicator of tissue metabolism in injuries. Here, we investigated whether the changes in metabolic state can be used as a marker of oxidative stress caused by hyperoxia and bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS) exposure in neonatal rat lungs. We examined the tissue redox states of lungs from four groups of rat pups: normoxic (21% O2) pups, hyperoxic (90% O2) pups, pups treated with LPS (normoxic + LPS), and pups treated with LPS and hyperoxia (hyperoxic + LPS). Our results show that hyperoxia oxidized the respiratory chain as reflected by a ~31% decrease in lung tissue NADH RR as compared to that for normoxic lungs. LPS treatment alone or with hyperoxia had no significant effect on lung tissue NADH RR as compared to that for normoxic or hyperoxic lungs, respectively. Thus, NADH RR serves as a quantitative marker of oxidative stress level in lung injury caused by two clinically important conditions: hyperoxia and LPS exposure.

Novel Flurometric Tool to Assess Mitochondrial Redox State of Isolated Perfused Rat Lungs After Exposure to Hyperoxia

Recently, we demonstrated the utility of optical fluorometry to detect a change in the redox status of mitochondrial autofluorescent coenzymes nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH) and oxidized form of flavin adenine dinucleotide (FADH2) (FAD), as a measure of mitochondrial function in isolated perfused rat lungs (IPL). The objective of this paper was to utilize optical fluorometry to evaluate the effect of rat exposure to hyperoxia (>95% O2 for 48 h) on lung tissue mitochondrial redox status of NADH and FAD in a nondestructive manner in IPL. Surface NADH and FAD signals were measured before and after lung perfusion with perfusate containing rotenone (ROT, complex I inhibitor), potassium cyanide (KCN, complex IV inhibitor), and/or pentachlorophenol (PCP, uncoupler). ROTor KCN-induced increase in NADH signal is considered a measure of complex I activity, and KCN-induced decrease in FAD signal is considered a measure of complex II activity. The results show that hyperoxia decreased complex I and II activities by 63% and 55%, respectively, when compared to lungs of rats exposed to room air (normoxic rats). Mitochondrial complex I and II activities in lung homogenates were also lower (77% and 63%, respectively) for hyperoxic than for normoxic lungs. These results suggest that the mitochondrial matrix is more reduced in hyperoxic lungs than in normoxic lungs, and demonstrate the ability of optical fluorometry to detect a change in mitochondrial redox state of hyperoxic lungs prior to histological changes characteristic of hyperoxia.

Fluorescence Spectroscopy and Cryoimaging of Rat Lung Tissue Mitochondrial Redox State

The objective of this study was to demonstrate the utility of optical cryoimaging and fluorometry to evaluate tissue redox state of the mitochondrial metabolic coenzymes NADH (Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide) and FAD (Flavin Adenine Dinucleotide) in intact rat lungs. The ratio (NADH/FAD), referred to as mitochondrial redox ratio (RR), is a measure of the lung tissue mitochondrial redox state. Isolated rat lungs were connected to a ventilation-perfused system. Surface NADH and FAD fluorescence signals were acquired before and after lung perfusion in the absence (control perfusate) or presence of potassium cyanide (KCN, complex IV inhibitor) to reduce the mitochondrial respiratory chain (state 5 respiration). Another group of lungs were perfused with control perfusate or KCN-containing perfusate as above, after which the lungs were deflated and frozen rapidly for subsequent 3D cryoimaging. Results demonstrate that lung treatment with KCN increased lung surface NADH signal by 22%, decreased FAD signal by 8%, and as result increased RR by 31% as compared to control perfusate (baseline) values. Cryoimaging results also show that KCN increased mean lung tissue NADH signal by 37%, decreased mean FAD signal by 4%, and increased mean RR by 47%. These results demonstrate the utility of these optical techniques to evaluate the effect of pulmonary oxidative stress on tissue mitochondrial redox state in intact lungs.

Cytometric analysis of retinopathies in retinal trypsin digests

The objective of this work was to design an automated image cytometry tool for determination of various retinal vascular parameters including extraction of features that are relevant to postnatal retinal vascular development, and the progression of diabetic retinopathy. To confirm the utility and accuracy of the software, retinal trypsin digest from TSP1-/- and diabetic Akita/+; TSP1-/- mice were analyzed. TSP1 is a critical inhibitor of development of retinopathies and lack of TSP1 exacerbates progression of early diabetic retinopathies. Loss of vascular cells of and gain more acellular capillaries as two major signs of diabetic retinopathies were used to classify a retina as normal or injured. This software allows quantification and high throughput assessment of retinopathy changes associated with diabetes.

Fluorometry of ischemia reperfusion injury in rat lungs in vivo

Previously we demonstrated the utility of optical fluorometry to evaluate lung tissue mitochondrial redox state in isolated perfused rats lungs under various chemically-induced respiratory states. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of acute ischemia on lung tissue mitochondrial redox state in vivo using optical fluorometry. Under ischemic conditions, insufficient oxygen supply to the mitochondrial chain should reduce the mitochondrial redox state calculated from the ratio of the auto-fluorescent mitochondrial metabolic coenzymes NADH (Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide) and FAD (Flavoprotein Adenine Dinucleotide). The chest of anesthetized, and mechanically ventilated Sprague-Dawley rat was opened to induce acute ischemia by clamping the left hilum to block both blood flow and ventilation to one lung for approximately 10 minutes. NADH and FAD fluorescent signals were recorded continuously in a dark room via a fluorometer probe placed on the pleural surface of the left lung. Acute ischemia caused a decrease in FAD and an increase in NADH, which resulted in an increase in the mitochondrial redox ratio (RR=NADH/FAD). Restoration of blood flow and ventilation by unclamping the left hilum returned the RR back to its baseline. These results (increase in RR under ischemia) show promise for the fluorometer to be used in a clinical setting for evaluating the effect of pulmonary ischemia-reperfusion on lung tissue mitochondrial redox state in real time.

Automated Evaluation of Retinopathies Using Image Cytometry

Retinopathic changes are common to many ocular diseases and if detected early, much of the change caused by various injuries can be prevented or in some cases reversed. However, detection and quantification of these changes currently requires tedious invasive and manual examination of retinal wholemount images. To remedy the quantitative limitations, we have designed a software system to automatically determine the vascular cell counts and coverage of retina in wholemount trypsin digest images. To verify the utility of the system, retinal trypsin digests from wild type (bcl-2 +/+) and bcl-2 deficient (bcl-2 -/-) mice were compared. Bcl-2 is a critical regulator of apoptosis with a significant role in retinal angiogenesis and vascularization. The bcl-2 -/- mice exhibited significant reduction in retinal vascular density and complexity. Thus, our results show the potential for automated evaluation of retinal trypsin digests delineating the differences between the wild type and bcl-2-deficient retinal vasculature.

Optical studies of tissue mitochondrial redox in isolated perfused rat lungs

Through the monitoring of the auto-fluorescent mitochondrial metabolic coenzymes, NADH (Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide) and FAD (Flavoprotein Adenine Dinucleotide), the redox state of metabolism can be probed in real time in many intact organs, but its use has not been fully developed in lungs. The ratio of these fluorophores, (NADH/FAD), referred to as the mitochondrial redox ratio (RR), can be used as a quantitative metabolic marker of tissue. We have designed a fluorometer that can be used to monitor lung surface NADH and FAD fluorescence in isolated perfused lungs. Surface fluorescence NADH and FAD signals were acquired in the absence (control) and presence of pentachlorophenol (PCP), rotenone, and potassium cyanide (KCN). Rotenone, an inhibitor of complex I, increased RR by 18%, predominantly due to an increase in NADH signal. KCN, an inhibitor of complex IV reduced the chain and resulted in an increase of 33% in RR, as a result of 23% increase in NADH and 8% in FAD . PCP, an uncoupler which oxidizes the respiratory chain, decreased RR by 18% as a result of 14% decrease in NADH signal and 4% increase in FAD signal. These results demonstrate the ability of surface fluorometry to detect changes in lung tissue mitochondrial redox state in isolated perfused lungs.

Optical cryo-imaging of kidney mitochondrial redox state in diabetic mouse models

Oxidative stress (OS), which increases during diabetes, exacerbates the development and progression of diabetes complications including renal vascular and proximal tubule cell dysfunction. The objective of this study was to investigate the changes in the metabolic state of the tissue in diabetic mice kidneys using fluorescence imaging. Mitochondrial metabolic coenzymes NADH (Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide), and FADH-2 (Flavin Adenine Dinucleotide) are autofluorescent and can be monitored without exogenous labels by optical techniques. The ratio of the fluorescence intensity of these fluorophores, (NADH/FAD), called the NADH redox ratio (RR), is a marker of metabolic state of a tissue. We examined mitochondrial redox states of kidneys from diabetic mice, Akita/+ and its control wild type (WT) for a group of 8- and 12-week-old mice. Average intensity and histogram of maximum projected images of FAD, NADH, and NADH RR were calculated for each kidney. Our results indicated a 17% decrease in the mean NADH RR of the kidney from 8-week-old mice compared with WT mice and, a 30% decrease in the mean NADH RR of kidney from12-week-old mice compared with WT mice. These results indicated an increase in OS in diabetic animals and its progression over time. Thus, NADH RR can be used as a hallmark of OS in diabetic kidney allowing temporal identification of oxidative state.