K.T. Boersma

Design Criteria for Learning and Teaching Genetics.

While learning and teaching difficulties in genetics have been abundantly explored and described, there has been less focus on the development and field-testing of strategies to address them. To inform the design of such a strategy a review study, focus group interviews with teachers, a case study of a traditional series of genetics lessons, student interviews, and content analysis of school genetics teaching were carried out. Specific difficulties reported in the literature were comparable to those perceived by Dutch teachers and found in the case study and the student interviews.The problems associated with the abstract and complex nature of genetics were studied in more detail. The separation of inheritance, reproduction and meiosis in the curriculum accounts for the abstract nature of genetics, while the different levels of biological organisation contribute to its complex nature. Finally, four design criteria are defined for a learning and teaching strategy to address these problems: linking the levels of organism, cell and molecule; explicitly connecting meiosis and inheritance; distinguishing the somatic and germ cell line in the context of the life cycle; and an active exploration of the relations between the levels of organisation by the students.

Systems Modelling and the Development of Coherent Understanding of Cell Biology

This article reports on educational design research concerning a learning and teaching strategy for cell biology in upper‐secondary education introducing systems modelling as a key competence. The strategy consists of four modelling phases in which students subsequently develop models of free‐living cells, a general two‐dimensional model of cells, a three‐dimensional model of plant cells, and finally they are engaged in formal thinking by modelling life phenomena to a hierarchical systems model. The strategy was thought out, elaborated, and tested in classrooms in several research cycles. Throughout the field‐tests, research data were collected by means of classroom observations, interviews, audio‐taped discussions, completed worksheets, written tests, and questionnaires. Reflection on the research findings eventuated in reshaping and formalizing the learning and teaching strategy, which is presented here. The results show that although acquiring systems thinking competence at the metacognitive level needs more effort, our strategy contributed to improving learning outcomes; that is, acquisition of a coherent conceptual understanding of cell biology and acquisition of initial systems thinking competence, with modelling being the key activity.

Reinventing Natural Selection

Although many research studies report students’ Lamarckian misconceptions, only a few studies present learning and teaching strategies that focus on the successful development of the concept of natural selection. The learning and teaching strategy for upper secondary students (aged 15–16) presented in this study conducted in The Netherlands is based on the idea of guided reinvention, rather than on the conceptual change strategy. In guided reinvention, students reinvent the concept of natural selection by answering a sequence of questions based on the logical nature of Darwin’s theory. The results show that few Lamarckian explanations for evolution were recorded in the study and that the majority of the students developed a Darwinian or neo‐Darwinian conception. The status of Lamarckian misconceptions is challenged.

The feasibility of systems thinking in biology education

Systems thinking in biology education is an up and coming research topic, as yet with contrasting feasibility claims. In biology education systems thinking can be understood as thinking backward and forward between concrete biological objects and processes and systems models representing systems theoretical characteristics. Some studies claim that systems thinking can be readily introduced at the level of primary-school education; other studies claim that even in upper secondary-school education the introduction of systems thinking requires a carefully outlined approach in order not to strain students’ capacities too much. In order to explain these contrasting claims a procedure of analysis was used to map and compare the conceptual frameworks of the various studies, focusing on the selection of systems, references to systems theory and definitions of systems thinking. The analysis demonstrates that the frameworks include different elements of systems thinking. In particular, the analysis shows that the studies recommending the introduction of systems thinking in primary- or lower secondary-school education did not measure students’ ability to think forward and backward between concrete objects and systems models. The analysis contributes to a discussion about useful preparatory learning and teaching trajectories, preceding the formal introduction of systems thinking.

Towards coherent science and technology education

The integration of science and technology education has been a topic of worldwide debate. However, the focus of the debate has been too much on the degree of integration of subjects at the expense of such important but related issues as the nature of the constituting disciplines, educational levels (state, school, classroom), and the objects of integration. Integration should be seen from the perspective of curricular coherence. Coherent science and technology education (CSTE) should pay attention both to uninterrupted learning on the part of students and to the nature of the constituting disciplines. This paper describes a study exploring CSTE practice in nine junior‐secondary schools in the Netherlands. It recommends a framework to promote CSTE by stakeholders at the state, school, and classroom levels.

Worldviews and evolution in the biology classroom

This study examined what worldviews are present among Dutch students and teachers and how the students cope with scientific knowledge acquired in the biology classroom. Furthermore, we investigated what learning and teaching strategies teachers adopt when they teach about evolution and worldviews. For this survey, 10 schools for higher general secondary education or pre-university level were selected. The data showed that most teachers did not have an articulated learning and teaching strategy. Controversial topics and discussions with students about their own worldviews were ignored in the classroom. Furthermore, the data revealed that students and teachers have a large variety of different worldviews. Some students acknowledged having difficulties coping with the knowledge gained from the classroom, because it contradicted their own worldviews. These results support our hypothesis that there is need for an explicit learning and teaching strategy that supports both teachers and students to teach and learn about evolution in multiple contexts.

A designer's view: The perspective of form and function

Perspectives are domain-specific strategies employed by experts in a specific field to formulate and investigate questions. Such strategies may therefore serve as good models for acquiring knowledge. Based on this premise, we developed the perspective of form and function, as used by both biologists and technical designers, into a tool for constructing knowledge in primary science education. Firstly, we developed a model of the perspective of form and function. It proved possible to make one model for both biological and technical practice. In order to ascertain whether primary school students could acquire the perspective of form and function, the model of the perspective of form and function was then developed into a learning tool dubbed the ‘designers glasses’. During lessons, the students (aged 11) learned to use the tool to translate from function to form and vice versa, for both technical and biological phenomena. The ‘designers glasses’ helped the students to analyse and compare technical and biological designs and increased their observational skills and understanding of design. However, specific coaching by the teacher was needed to achieve the necessary steps in observation and discussion.

Recontextualising Cellular Respiration in Upper Secondary Biology Education. Characteristics and Practicability of a Learning and Teaching Strategy

Since concepts may have different meanings in different contexts, students have to learn to recontextualise them, i.e. to adapt their meanings to a new context. It is unclear, however, what characteristics a learning and teaching strategy for recontextualising should have. The study aims to develop such a learning and teaching strategy for cellular respiration. The strategy consists of a storyline, consisting of three contexts, with embedded cognitive elements and some episodes focussed on recontextualising cellular respiration. Testing the strategy in two classes in upper secondary biology education showed that the strategy was largely practicable.

Towards a More Curricular Focus in International Comparative Studies on Mathematics and Science Education

From international comparative studies (TIMSS, PISA) it appears that students in lower secondary education in the Netherlands perform relatively well in mathematics and science compared to their peers from other participating countries. Policy-makers, especially, are eager to bring these positive outcomes into the limelight. However, one may wonder whether, in case of the Netherlands, there is good reason for such zeal. An evaluation study, conducted by the Netherlands Inspectorate of Education, shows that lower secondary schools do not meet the quality required in implementing a curriculum reform that started in 1993, entitled ‘basic secondary education’. So, in spite of all rhetoric on the positive outcomes of TIMSS and PISA in the Netherlands, when putting the relatively good student performance in the context of the implementation of this ambitious curriculum reform, many people become puzzled. Research findings on the quality of mathematics and science education seem to be in conflict with the results of TIMMS and PISA. This conclusion and also the observation that international comparative assessment studies have serious difficulty in meeting the goal of providing proper interpretations of student achievement, especially from a curriculum perspective, give reason to attempt to disentangle the conflicting images.

Learning and Teaching about Ecosystems Based on Systems Thinking and Modelling in an Authentic Practice

This paper is a report on educational design research concerning learning and teaching contemporary ecology. To be able to understand ecosystem behaviour as derived from a complex and dynamic view, learning and teaching systems thinking and modelling skills is essential. To accomplish context-based ecology education, a cultural-historical approach was chosen, using three authentic social practices in which ecology is involved. A sequence of learning and teaching activities was thought out, elaborated and tested in classrooms. Throughout the field test the learning and teaching process was monitored in detail using various data sources. The results show that the students acquired basic systems thinking; they were able to articulate similarities and differences between the levels of biological organization (individual, population, and ecosystem). In addition, they understood which factors are crucial in an ecosystem and how they work, in particular how they impact quantitatively on each other. Most students were able to explore the required computer models. However, for most of them it remained problematic to build models themselves