Kameron J. Moding

Understanding and measuring parent use of food to soothe infant and toddler distress: A longitudinal study from 6 to 18 months of age

The present study examined the development of parent use of food to soothe infant distress by examining this feeding practice longitudinally when infants were 6, 12 and 18 months of age. Two measures of feeding to soothe were obtained: parent self-report and observations of food to soothe during each laboratory visit. Demographic and maternal predictors of food to soothe were examined as well as the outcome, infant weight gain. The findings showed that the two measures of food to soothe were unrelated but did reveal similar and unique relations with predictor variables such as parent feeding style and maternal self-efficacy. Only observations of the use of food to soothe were related to infant weight gain. The findings indicate that the two measures of food to soothe may be complementary and that observations of this feeding practice may capture certain relations that are not obtained through the use of self-report.

Children's Challenging Eating Behaviors: Picky Eating, Food Neophobia, and Food Selectivity

Abstract Picky eating, food neophobia, and food selectivity are challenging eating behaviors that emerge during early childhood. Although these behaviors are highly interrelated, they differ in prevalence and scope. In this chapter, we define each of the behaviors and explore their similarities and differences in terms of measurement, antecedents, and consequences. All three behaviors appear to have both genetic and environmental components that impact the severity and degree to which the behaviors are expressed. Additionally, each of the behaviors is associated with important nutrition, health, and growth outcomes. To date, the majority of data related to these behaviors has been collected through cross-sectional studies, and thus it is difficult to make conclusions regarding the developmental trajectory of these behaviors or recommendations for treatment in severe clinical cases. Consistent definitions and measurement approaches are needed to better understand antecedents and to develop effective interventions for each behavior.

Infant temperament and parent use of food to soothe predict change in weight-for-length across infancy: early risk factors for childhood obesity

ObjectivesGreater weight gain in infancy is a risk factor for childhood obesity. The present study examined the interaction between infant temperament and parent use of food to soothe infant distress (FTS) as predictors of weight gain across the first 2 years of life.Subjects/MethodsA total of 160 mother–infant dyads were recruited into a longitudinal study. Infant temperament was assessed by parents through a questionnaire (surgency, negativity) and by observer ratings (surgency, irritability) during a laboratory visit when infants were 6 months old. Parents also completed a 3-day infant cry diary when their children were 6 months of age to assess when they used food in response to infant cry/fuss bouts. Infant weight/length was measured in the lab at 6 and 18 months. Multiple regressions were run to test the moderating effect of FTS on weight gain.ResultsSignificant interactions were revealed for both measures of surgency and parent FTS in predicting weight gain. Surgent infants whose parents had a greater tendency to use FTS had greater weight-for-length gain in 1 year than if their parents tended to use less FTS. The interaction between observer ratings of irritability and parent FTS was also significant but in an unexpected direction.ConclusionsThe findings point to the role of temperament, specifically surgency, in weight gain during infancy, but only if their parents used FTS. Surgency may have evoked this feeding practice that increased their health risk.

Predicting toddler temperamental approach-withdrawal: Contributions of early approach tendencies, parenting behavior, and contextual novelty ☆

Research suggests that temperamental approach-withdrawal is subject to parenting influences, but few studies have explored how specific parenting behaviors and contextual novelty contribute to the observed pattern of effects. The present study examined associations between infant temperamental approach, mother behavior while introducing novel objects (12 months) and temperamental approach-withdrawal in toddlerhood (18 months) in a sample of 132 infants (68 males). Maternal positive affect predicted more toddler approach-withdrawal for high-approach infants and maternal stimulation predicted less toddler approach-withdrawal for low-approach infants; however, these patterns varied with intensity of novelty in both parenting and toddler outcome contexts. Thus, maternal behavior may lead to stronger associations between earlier and later measures of approach-withdrawal; however, these effects are tied to contexts of measurement.

Interactive effects of parenting behavior and regulatory skills in toddlerhood on child weight outcomes

ObjectivesThere is limited research investigating whether maternal behaviors exhibited during non-feeding contexts play a role in the development of obesity, and whether this association varies based on children’s emerging regulatory skills. The objective of this study was to investigate interactions between maternal behaviors and toddler regulation predicting child BMI z-scores (BMIZ) at 4.5 years.Subjects/methodsInfant–mother dyads (n = 108) participated in laboratory visits when the child was 18 months and 4.5 years of age. Maternal interactive behaviors (i.e., positive responsiveness, gentle control) were coded from recordings of free play and clean-up tasks with their toddlers. Toddler regulation was assessed via an observational task, experimenter ratings, and parent ratings. Child and mother length/height and weight measurements were recorded and used to calculate child BMIZ and maternal BMI, respectively.ResultsAfter controlling for covariates, two significant interactions emerged between maternal behaviors and toddler regulation predicting BMIZ at 4.5 years. First, an interaction of positive responsiveness during free play and toddler regulation demonstrated that greater positive responsiveness significantly related to lower child BMIZ for toddlers with poor regulation. Second, an interaction of gentle control during clean-up and toddler regulation indicated that greater gentle control was associated with lower BMIZ for toddlers with lesser regulatory abilities, but higher BMIZ for well-regulated toddlers. No significant main effects emerged for maternal interactive behaviors or toddler regulation.ConclusionsThese results suggest that associations between maternal behaviors and child BMIZ may depend on toddlers’ emerging regulatory abilities. Maternal responsiveness during free play and gentle control during clean-up appear to protect against weight gain, especially for toddlers with lower regulatory abilities. However, greater levels of gentle control may have adverse effects on BMIZ for well-regulated toddlers. These results suggest that both parenting and toddler regulation, examined outside feeding contexts, may have important implications for child obesity.

Mary Poppins was right: Adding small amounts of sugar or salt reduces the bitterness of vegetables

Only a quarter of adults and 7% of children consume recommended amounts of vegetables each day. Often vegetables are not initially palatable due to bitterness, which may lead children and adults to refuse to taste or eat them. The objective of this research was to determine if very small amounts of sugar or salt (common household ingredients) could lead to significant reductions in bitterness intensity and increased hedonic ratings of green vegetable purees. For Experiment 1, three different green vegetable purees (broccoli, spinach, and kale) were prepared with different levels of sugar (0%, 0.6%, 1.2%, and 1.8%) or salt (0 and 0.2%). Samples were evaluated using standard descriptive analysis techniques with nine adults who completed more than 20 h of green vegetable specific training as a group. For Experiment 2, each vegetable puree was prepared with either 0% or 2% sugar, and bitterness was assessed via a forced choice task with 84 adults. For Experiment 3, each vegetable puree was prepared with 0%, 1%, or 2% sugar and rated for liking on standard 9 point hedonic scales by 99 adults. Experiments 1 and 2 showed that addition of small amounts of sugar and salt each reduced the bitterness (and increased sweetness and saltiness) from all three vegetables without altering other sensory properties (e.g. texture or aroma). Experiment 3 showed that adding sugar to vegetable purees increased hedonic ratings for adult consumers. We also found parents had mixed attitudes about the idea of adding sugar to foods intended for infants and toddlers. Further research on the effects of bitterness masking especially for specific populations (e.g., infants and young children or adults who have higher sensitivity to bitter taste) is warranted.